External kinetics measurements in individual and relay swimming starts: a review

Synopsis

Since the 70s, researchers have instrumented swimming starting blocks to measure the external kinetics acting on swimmers (e.g. Stevenson and Morehouse, 1978). As the swimming events have been decided by less than a second, the swimming starting analysis has assumed an important role in sport biomechanists scope. However, the international swimming starting rules and starting block configuration have changed, and none review study was conducted to describe the ‘state of the art’ of starting blocks instrumentation and respective advantages and disadvantages. This study reviewed the swimming literature on starting external kinetics for the purposes of summarising and highlighting existing knowledge, identifying gaps and limitations and challenging new researchers for future projects.