Women in Sport

Benefits of sport

The benefits of participation in sport and physical activity for women and girls are consistent with those experienced by other groups and individuals, including benefits to physical, mental, and social wellbeing, education, workforce outcomes, and more. ^{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Sports organisations can also gain from including women and girls, including greater diversity in viewpoints, decision making and leadership, new ideas for strategies and programs, and increased membership, volunteer, and fan bases. ^{9, 10, 11}

IMPACT

Role of sport

Sport can play a positive role in the development, health, and wellbeing of women and girls.

Impact

Role of sport

Sport can play a positive role in the development, health, and wellbeing of women and girls. ^{4 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18}

In 2019, the Suncorp Australian Youth and Confidence research found almost 3 in 4 girls aged 11-17 years surveyed saw sport as important. ¹⁹

Most frequently, sport is cited as positive vehicles for improved:

Confidence and feeling good about themselves ^{6, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25}
Career and leadership development and success ^{13, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27}
Academic achievement ^{3, 6, 12, 13, 14, 21, 28, 29}
Health and fitness, especially through increased physical activity and motivation to be active ^{3, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33}
Improvements in skill or ability ^{6, 18, 25, 33, 34}
Resilience and mental wellbeing (e.g. reduced risk of depression) ^{4, 14, 24, 26}

Sport can also play a role in challenging traditional gender stereotypes and challenging behaviours such as sexism, gender inequality, and violence against women. ^{16, 26, 27, 35, 36}

While the benefits of sport and physical activity are widely recognised, the potential for negative effects, especially when programs or activities fail to keep participants safe from abuse or harm, also exist. For example, female athletes can be at higher risk of sexual assault or predatory behaviour, and over-exercising can be a coping mechanism for depression or body image concerns, potentially leading to long-term health issues. ¹⁴

How disabled women athletes are helping mainstream sport clubs become more inclusive, Elizabeth Wright, ABC, (11 December 2023). In recent years, Frankston Basketball has struggled to attract disabled people to the club. "We couldn't cater to adults or anybody in a wheelchair or anybody that had a different disability," Ms Thomas said. "It's not the person's disability that stops them from coming, it's the barriers of the programs not being accessible, the people not being trained." To remove these barriers, the club is participating in a national program called the Building Inclusive Sport Clubs Project.
Feeling more confident, active and happier: What the World Dwarf Games mean to the Australian women's basketball team, Julie Dickson, Siren Sport/ABC, (5 November 2023). While the Netherlands proved too strong in the gold medal match, the first Australian women's basketball team to play at the World Dwarf Games didn't just bring home a silver medal. They changed the game for short statured women. Kate Colley is one of the newcomers. Before joining the new team, Kate did little exercise. She says training for the Games has helped her to incorporate more exercise into her everyday life and has also boosted her confidence.
How to create a more equitable future for women with a disability in sport, Georgia Munro-Cook, Siren Sport/ABC, (26 April 2023). In 2012, my life was abruptly up-ended after a planned routine hip surgery instead uncovered something far worse, which resulted in disability. On top of the excruciating chronic pain, limited walking ability, and constant brain fog, what was the most devastating to me at the time was that I could no longer play the game I love. Basketball was one of the most important parts of my life. It felt like I had lost part of my identity. Then someone suggested playing wheelchair basketball. The thought had never really crossed my mind as, like most people, I assumed you had to use a wheelchair full-time. But this person assured me that actually people with many different types of disability played wheelchair basketball, including many people like me. So, I went and tried it out. And it was incredible — I could play sport again. But it wasn't just the actual game of basketball that was important in regaining my sense of self. My experience playing with the Australian Gliders has helped me come to terms with my disability and learn from others in how to negotiate living in a world that still puts up barriers for so many people with a disability.
Why the fight for gender equality can be won on the footy field, Marlee Silva, Body+Soul, (4 October 2021). For many Australians, football is more than just a game; it’s a reflection of society. When it comes to football, according to 2020 data collected by Roy Morgan, more than 7.5 million Aussies tune into AFL games regularly, and more than 5.7 million watch the NRL season each year. This suggests that almost half the population has a team they barrack for – and half the population can be targeted in the conversation about gender equality through their screens or seated in stadiums. If we don’t speak up against the mistreatment of women, we are telling those who watch these games that females are less. I’m not talking about equal pay; the game isn’t there yet for the women players. I’m talking about equal respect, equal protection, equal job security for all women involved – whether they’re on the field making the tackles, in the commentary box or watching from home. Sport has so much power. It’s the universal language that can bring people together and unite them regardless of their circumstances, and it can also challenge them to think differently through the stories and the actions of the heroes on their screens.
Why a female athlete should be your next leader, Ernst & Young (EY) Global, (23 September 2020). Research conducted over the last three years as part of EY’s Women Athletes Business Network shows the role that sport plays at every stage of professional women’s lives — from girls to rising leaders to C-suite executives. With their problem-solving skills and team-building experiences, women who have played sport are uniquely positioned to lead in the corporate world. A UN report points out that “the participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains.” Sport backgrounds can also help C-suite leaders succeed. When they enter the boardroom, women athletes have a unique advantage. In addition to the strong work ethic, determination and team spirit fostered by their time on the playing field, they thrive on competition, which C-suite women who were polled in EY/espnW research noted was a bigger factor in their careers than did more junior women. Business leaders need to understand the direct relationship between athletics and careers and to partner with the athletic departments of universities to identify high-potential candidates, much as they do with finance, accounting or business departments. Companies must also develop policies specifically targeted toward identifying and recruiting athletes early on.
Why Equitable Opportunity Matters: What a Life in Sport Provides Women and Girls Beyond the Game, Mim Haigh, Athlete Assessments, (2020). While girls’ and women’s opportunities to participate in sport have improved following the passage of Title IX in the United States, boys and men continue to be involved in sport substantially more than their female counterparts, and this gap only grows as they get older. Indeed, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations (2018-2019) boys have 1.13 million more opportunities to play sports than girls each year. The narrative extends well beyond the competition arena with the research clearly stating that from C-suite executives or developing leaders, to those entering the workforce, college, or school, with their practiced problem-solving abilities, leadership, and team building capabilities, a background in sport uniquely positions women and girls for success in any non-sporting endeavor.Some benefits or skills identified as being fostered by sport participation include Self-awareness, Self-belief and Self-confidence, Teamwork, Leadership, Driving standards, Discretionary effort, Performance under pressure, and Winning and losing.
How can winning on the playing field prepare you for success in the boardroom? Janelle Sasaki, EY Global, (6 March 2020). A global study (Why female athletes make winning entrepreneurs) of male and female C-Suite executives conducted by EY and espnW between 2013 and 2016 found an undeniable correlation between athletic and business success:
- 94% of women executives have a background in sport, and over half participated at university levels
- 80% of women Fortune 500 executives had played competitive sports
- 74% of all executives believed playing sports helps a woman progress faster
- 61% of the women executives who responded believed playing sports contributed positively to their career success and advancement
Benefits – Why Sports Participation for Girls and Women, Women’s Sports Foundation (30 August 2016). Sport has been one of the most important socio-cultural learning experiences for boys and men for many years. Those same benefits should be afforded our daughters. It is important for all of us to know that: High school girls who play sports are less likely to be involved in an unintended pregnancy; more likely to get better grades in school and more likely to graduate than girls who do not play sports; Girls and women who play sports have higher levels of confidence and self-esteem and lower levels of depression; Girls and women who play sports have a more positive body image and experience higher states of psychological well-being than girls and women who do not play sports. Sport is where boys have traditionally learned about teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviors—critical skills necessary for success in the workplace. In an economic environment where the quality of our children’s lives will be dependent on two-income families, our daughters cannot be less prepared for the highly competitive workplace than our sons. It is no accident that 80% of the female executives at Fortune 500 companies identified themselves as former “tomboys”—having played sports. Right now, however, women who don’t know the written and unwritten rules of sport are at a disadvantage in understanding business models of organization based on sport. How important is it that our daughters learn the same rules as our sons? It’s critical.
Lessons in women’s leadership from lacrosse and basketball, Beth A. Brooke-Marciniak, EY/World Economic Forum, (4 March 2015). A background in sport can improve a woman's leadership potential and help her land a job, according to women executives surveyed by the EY Women Athletes Business Network and espnW. Here are three important areas that business leaders, national and local governments and parents can focus on to help foster attitudes, programmes and communities that truly value the unique role of sports in creating women leaders: Support girls’ and women’s sports programmes from the ground up; Drive understanding of why sports matter for girls and women; Identify athletes in the talent pipeline.
Ernst & Young Studies The Connection Between Female Executives And Sports, Alana Glass, Forbes, (24 June 2013). Ernst & Young commissioned a global online survey to investigate the important role of sports in the development of female executive in connection with its Women Athletes Global Leadership Network. The study found that 90% of the women surveyed had played sports either at primary and secondary school, or during university or other tertiary education, with this proportion rising to 96% among C-suite women. Moreover, in comparing C-level female respondents to other female managers, far more had participated in sports at a higher level. Ultimately, 55% of the C-suite women had played sports at a university level, compared with 39% of other female managers. The respondents included 821 senior managers and executives (40% female, 60% male) who work at companies with annual revenues in excess of US$250 million. Together they represented 15 different countries (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Africa, United Kingdom, and United States) and a wide range of industries.

Blind Sports Australia releases inaugural sport participation data, Blind Sports Australia, (12 October 2022). Findings reveal the motivations and barriers to people participating in sport and show opportunities such as boosting female blind sport participation are a priority. While transportation and travel stand out as the single largest obstacle for a person with a vision impairment to play sport.
- The most popular sports across both blind sport and general sport are running, cricket and goalball. The top five blind sports for females are running, goalball, cricket, tennis and cycling. This is nearly the same for males, where the top five blind sports are cricket, running, goalball, tennis and soccer.
Chasing Equity: The Triumphs, Challenges, and Opportunities in Sports for Girls and Women, Women's Sports Foundation, (January 2020). There are distinct and vast benefits to girls’ participation in sport and physical activity at all levels of sport participation from grassroots to professional sport and beyond. Girls and women reap significant benefits from sport participation that are both immediate and long-term. Girls who do not participate in sport are less content with their lives than female sport participants. Sport involvement enhances girls’ quality of life as female athletes often benefit more from sport participation than male athletes. Sport is a favorable domain to support the fostering of leadership skills in girls. Main benefits discussed are physical, social, emotional, and academic.
Why female athletes make winning entrepreneurs, EY and espnW, (2017). is there something about sport that primes women for the highstakes world of entrepreneurship? What are the transferable attitudes and behaviors that competitive sport instills? And, more broadly, what can women in the workforce at all levels learn from women who have leapt from the field of play to the founder’s chair? Our discussions with 22 entrepreneurs identified five winning strategies they developed as athletes that give them an edge in launching and scaling their own enterprises: Confidence — in their abilities, even during rough patches; Single-mindedness — an unwavering focus on the challenges ahead; Passion — the determination to succeed in everything they do; Leadership — the ability to lead and inspire a team of likeminded individuals; Resilience — the ability to take failure as “feedback” that will only make them stronger. In this report, we explore each of these attributes and suggest how they can be translated into behaviors that women can adopt to help them start, lead and grow their own companies.
Her Life Depends On It III: Sport, Physical Activity, and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls and Women, Staurowsky, E. J., DeSousa, M. J., Miller, K. E., et al., Women’s Sports Foundation, (May 2015). A comprehensive report that reviews existing and emerging research on the links between participation in sport and physical activity and the health and wellbeing of American girls and women. As with the previous editions in 2004 and 2009, this study also confirms that physical activity and sport provides the critical foundation, in no small part, that allows girls and women to lead healthy, strong, and fulfilled lives. The report’s contents reflect the review of 1,500 studies, nearly 400 covered since the previous edition. While the report’s focus continues to be on U.S. girls and women, selected research findings that offer perspective regarding girls and women worldwide is also referenced in order to provide some perspective and context. The research compiled in this updated report strongly suggests that sport and physical activity provide conditions that help to ensure girls’ health and wellbeing (physical, social, psychological, and academic). The full report offers expansive documentation on the impact sport and physical activity has in the lives of girls and women. In this report, we also highlight the emerging areas of research that focus on protecting the health of female athletes and offer insights into the steps that need to be taken to ensure their health and safety. Some important selected findings identified include:
- Physically active women are less likely to suffer from cardiovascular disease; have reduced risk of cancer, particularly breast, colon, lung, ovarian, endometrial, and esophageal; improved bone health; less likely to use most illicit drugs; reduced risk of depression and less likely to create a suicide plan; and educational gains.
- As a general trend, females across the board, regardless of age, race, or social class, are shortchanged in realizing the benefits of participation in physically challenging activities. However, females from lower economic backgrounds, females of color and females with disabilities suffer even greater negative health consequences as a result of less engagement in physical activity and less access to sport and physical fitness programs.
- The health benefits realized from the participation of girls and women in sport and physical activity vary by socioeconomic level and racial/ethnic group. Throughout the report, available findings document health risks and vulnerabilities for females of color as well as for girls and women living in urban and rural settings.
- The playing field may help to buffer against some kinds of substance use, such as tobacco or illicit “hard” drugs, while exacerbating the risk of others, such as smokeless tobacco, alcohol, and anabolic androgenic steroids. Traditionally girls have tended to have lower rates of substance use than boys, but the long-standing gender gap is narrowing – especially for those substances that have most typically been closely linked to sports.
- Most studies show lower rates of drug use by female athletes compared to their non-athlete peers, suggesting that sports participation may help protect girls against illicit drug use. Explanations for this relationship vary.
- Research suggests that under some conditions, athletic participation may reduce risky sexual behaviors in adolescent girls, such as early sexual initiation, multiple sex partners, or unprotected sex. In contrast to the protective effects of sports participation in adolescence, the effects for young adult women are less clear. Several studies have found that female college athletes are actually at higher risk than their non-athlete peers for some forms of unsafe sex, particularly in the context of heavy drinking. Most studies found that athletic participation is associated with reduced odds of teen pregnancy.
- Growing numbers of studies are exploring how sports participation may serve to protect girls and women against some mental health risks while considering how it can exacerbate others. All other things being equal, athletes tend to enjoy a greater sense of self-esteem and feel less depression than their sedentary peers. Yet, perhaps because they hold themselves to a more demanding physical standard, athletes are also at greater risk for eating disorders. Moreover, frequent exercise or sports activity may, in some cases, be a red flag for depression, low self-esteem, poor body image, or even suicidality when over-exercise is used as a coping mechanism or a strategy for weight loss. In essence, sports participation in moderation enhances mental health; in excess, it may (literally) be overkill.
- Over the past few decades, several major reviews of the empirical literature have typically found that participation in sports is positively associated with many different educational outcomes. In general, sports participation has been shown to improve both girls’ and boys’ academic outcomes, with some studies suggesting that girls may gain an additional academic advantage due to their involvement in sports when compared to boys.
- Contemporary studies that have found that female athletes are most likely to show gains in male-dominated academic areas, such as math and science, have used a combination of functionalist and critical feminist theories to interpret why females in sport perform better academically in male dominated educational domains. These studies argued that participating in sport, a “male-dominated” domain, not only teaches female athletes skills and values necessary for success in academics, but also provides a social environment that challenges gender stereotypes about female limitations in other primarily “masculine domains” such as math and science. In other words, these studies theorize that sports participation provides a unique cultural environment for female athletes to challenge stereotypical assumptions about femininity (e.g., men are innately better at math than women).
- Previous athletic participation has been found to be an asset and valued quality among global business leaders. According to a 2013 study issued by Ernst & Young, a corporation that does business around the world, women at the executive level were found to have participated in university sport more frequently than women who were in manager positions (55% to 39%). The Ernst & Young (2013) study also found that more than 75% of women agree that adopting behaviors and techniques from sport in the corporate environment can be an effective way of improving the performance of work teams, which is a high management priority.
Where will you find your next leader? EY and espnW, (2015). Research conducted over the last three years as part of EY’s Women Athletes Business Network shows the role that sport plays at every stage of professional women’s lives — from girls to rising leaders to C-suite executives. With their problem-solving skills and team-building experiences, women who have played sport are uniquely positioned to lead in the corporate world. The value of physical activity extends far beyond the playing field.
- Besides good health, the benefits of sport include social, emotional and moral competencies, as well as resilience, a sense of teamwork and the ability to connect with a community.
- A United Nations report points out that “the participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains.”
- Women who have been athletes in high school generally earn more when they enter the workforce, according to research by Betsey Stevenson, former Chief Economist at the U.S. Department of Labor and now a professor of public policy at the University of Michigan. The annual wages of former athletes are on average about 7% higher than those of non-athletes, according to a Peterson Institute Policy Brief commissioned by EY.
- Seventy-four percent of respondents say a sport background can help accelerate a woman’s career, and 61% believe sporting involvement has contributed to their own career success. The survey linked women in senior management positions to experience with sport, finding that 94% of women in the C-suite (executive level positions) played sport, 52% at a university level (39% of women at other management levels). Eighty percent of Fortune 500 female executives have played sport in their earlier years. 77% of C-suite women think that women who played sport make good employees, with candidates with a sport background thought to be determined, have strong work ethic, and be team players.
- In addition to the strong work ethic, determination and team spirit fostered by their time on the playing field, they thrive on competition, which C-suite women who were polled in EY/espnW research noted was a bigger factor in their careers than did more junior women.
- A new study by the Peterson Institute for International Economics tracked women’s athletic participation and success at the Summer Olympic Games between Rome 1960 and London 2012. The researchers found that countries where women had even slightly more education and greater participation in the labor force won more medals in women’s Olympic events. This was the case even for modestly sized delegations from small or poor countries. The conditions that determine women’s athletic achievement are different from those that govern men’s success in sports, researchers found. Factors such as better education, more labor force participation, good health and a more urbanized population correlate with more medals for women in Olympic events.
- Business leaders need to understand the direct relationship between athletics and careers and to partner with the athletic departments of universities to identify high-potential candidates, much as they do with finance, accounting or business departments. Companies must also develop policies specifically targeted toward identifying and recruiting athletes early on.
Evaluation of the Sporting Chance Program, Lonsdale, M., Wilkinson, J., Armstrong, S., et al., Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) for the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, (2011). The objective of the Sporting Chance Program is to encourage improved educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (boys and girls) using sport and recreation. Such outcomes may include an increase in school attendance, strengthened engagement with school and improved attitudes to schooling, improved achievement in learning, increased retention to Year 12 or its vocational equivalent and greater parental and community involvement with the school and students’ schooling. More than 90 per cent of the 1,012 students surveyed and interviewed as part of the evaluation reported a positive attitude toward their schooling, particularly in relation to their attitudes to school, self-identity, sense of pride in being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and self-efficacy as learners.

Sex Differences in Association of Physical Activity With All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality, Hongwei Ji, Martha Gulati, Tzu Yu Huang, et al., Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Volume 83(8), pp.783-793, (2024). Although physical activity is widely recommended for reducing cardiovascular and all-cause mortality risks, female individuals consistently lag behind male individuals in exercise engagement. In a prospective study of 412,413 U.S. adults (55% female, age 44 ± 17 years) who provided survey data on leisure-time physical activity, we examined sex-specific multivariable-adjusted associations of physical activity measures (frequency, duration, intensity, type) with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality from 1997 through 2019. Men reached their maximal survival benefit of HR 0.81 from 300 min/wk of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, whereas women achieved similar benefit at 140 min/wk and then continued to reach a maximum survival benefit of HR 0.76 also at ∼300 min/wk. Sex-specific findings were similar for cardiovascular death and consistent across all measures of aerobic activity as well as muscle strengthening activity. Women compared with men derived greater gains in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk reduction from equivalent doses of leisure-time physical activity. These findings could enhance efforts to close the “gender gap” by motivating especially women to engage in any regular leisure-time physical activity.
Sport Participation for Academic Success: Evidence From the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, Katherine Owen, Bridget Foley, Ben Smith, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 21(3), pp.238-246, (2024). Education has a positive effect on health across all life stages. High educational attainment improves health through better employment opportunities, improved economic conditions, increased psychosocial resources, and a healthier lifestyle. Unsurprisingly, there is causal evidence that high educational attainment reduces the risk of mortality. For these reasons, identifying the modifiable determinants of children and adolescents’ educational outcomes should be a priority for parents, caregivers, teachers, policy makers, and society. Physical activity positively improves academic performance in children and adolescents. Sport participation is a distinct type of physical activity, and a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of 115 studies found evidence for a positive association between sport participation and academic performance. However, most of the included studies were low-quality and cross-sectional designs. The primary aim of the current study was to identify long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and to examine the association between these patterns and academic outcomes. A secondary aim was to identify patterns of children and adolescents’ participation in team and individual sport and explore the effect of these patterns on academic outcomes. Children who continued sport participation into adolescence had higher academic performance across a broad range of academic outcomes. Individual and team sport appear to be beneficial for different aspects of academic performance. Children who participated in team sport had better performance on attention and working memory, fewer absent days without permission, and were more likely to be awarded the HSC/equivalent. Whereas children who participated in individual sport reported higher NAPLAN literacy results and had a higher academic performance at the end of school (ATAR). Given the decline in sport participation during adolescence, these findings highlight the need to develop or modify educational policies to establish an environment that fosters and promotes sport participation, which in turn could improve academic outcomes. Sensitivity analysis for gender was calculated, but specific results for girls versus boys was not reported in this study.
Barriers to Physical Activity for Women with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review, Jurgi Olasagasti-Ibargoien, Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, Patxi León-Guereño, et al., Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, Volume 8(2), 82, (June 2023). Physical activity is essential for women with physical disabilities. This review aims to identify the barriers they face in practicing sport. There is sufficient theoretical evidence on the benefits of sporting activity; in the case of people with disabilities, it contributes to their functional independence, improves their physical condition, performance and physical capacity, favors the prevention and correction of deformities and postural defects, reduces stress, improves self-confidence, emotional state, relationships with others, and enjoyment and interest, among other things. However, a second important finding of this review is that barriers related to physical disability, such as health, mobility, or the degree of dependence on others, also prevent women from practicing sport, thus reducing the possibility of appropriating all the benefits mentioned above.
How Can Sport-Based Interventions Improve Health among Women and Girls? A Scoping Review, Maja Pedersen, Abby King, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 20(6), 4818, (March 2023). Sport has been identified by the World Health Organization as an underutilized yet important contributor to global physical activity, by UNESCO as a fundamental right, and by the United Nations as a promising driver for gender equity through improved long-term health of women and girls. Although sport-based interventions have been popularized to advance educational, social, and political development globally, little attention has been given to its impacts on health outcomes among women and girls. We undertook a scoping review of research on sport-based interventions for health among women and girls to summarize current research approaches and findings. PRISMA scoping review guidelines were observed. Online databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science) were used to identify peer-reviewed records published through August 2022. The interventions identified (n = 4) targeted health outcomes such as gender-based violence, HIV prevention, reproductive health, and child marriage. Based on our review, we recommend four key opportunities to advance the field of sport-based interventions in addressing health equity among women and girls. In addition, we highlight promising future research directions to broaden sport engagement of women and girls, improve long-term health, and build capacity toward health equity.
Detrimental Changes in Health during Menopause: The Role of Physical Activity, Ryan Hulteen , Kara Marlatt , Timothy Allerton, et al., International Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 44(6), pp.389-396, (2023). Midlife women experience changes in cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health during menopause that negatively impacts their overall quality of life. Factors that contribute to these increases in cardiometabolic risk include weight gain as well as increases in fat mass (particularly abdominal adiposity), insulin resistance, and vascular dysfunction. Other deleterious changes in physical health (e. g. reduced sleep health, bone density, and balance) as well as changes in psychosocial health (e. g. mood, anxiety, and depression) often coincide and are linked to these increases in cardiometabolic risk. Physical activity and exercise are important lifestyle components that have been demonstrated to improve cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health, yet physical activity and exercise is known to decline during perimenopause and into the postmenopausal years. In this narrative review, we summarize these changes in overall health during menopause as well as how declining physical activity contributes to these changes. Additionally, we discuss how incorporating physical activity and exercise during menopause can potentially ameliorate health declines. We conclude that there exists a significant, positive impact of physical activity on cardiometabolic, physical, and psychological health among midlife women, particularly if undertaken during the perimenopausal and postmenopausal years.
Multicomponent recreational team handball training improves global health status in postmenopausal women at the long term – A randomised controlled trial, Rita Pereira, Peter Krustrup, Carlo Castagna, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 23(8), pp.1789-1799, (2023). We evaluated the long-term effects of a recreational team handball-based multicomponent training on broad-spectrum health and physical fitness markers of inactive postmenopausal women. Improvements in VO_2peak and aerobic performance achieved after 16 weeks of training were maintained at 36 weeks. The 20-week extension of the training intervention resulted in further improvements in lipid profile markers and physical fitness variables. Recreational team handball could be suggested as an effective and safe strategy to counteract postmenopausal health-related constraints.
Collegiate Team Sport Participation and Adult Leadership Development [thesis], Sarah Grai, Southeastern University, FireScholars, (October 2022). This study explored the impact of female collegiate team sport participation on self-perceived leadership development and leadership style. Research was conducted using qualitative methods, interviewing 12 former female collegiate rugby athletes, all no more than 3 years removed from their collegiate rugby experience. The aim was to understand how female collegiate athletes experience the process of leadership development, how participation influences an athlete’s perceived leadership style, the influence of coaches and team roles on their leadership development, and how former female athletes display transformational leadership as adults, if at all. The results of the study confirmed that collegiate rugby played a role in the formation of adult leadership styles, yet important questions remain regarding the process of leadership development within collegiate sport.
Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Katherine Owen, Bridget Foley, Katrina Wilhite, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 54(2), pp.299-306, (February 2022). Our aim was to systematically review and combine via meta-analyses evidence of the association between sport participation and academic performance in children and adolescents. From 115 eligible studies, most of which had a high risk of bias (k = 87), we meta-analyzed 298 effect sizes. While gender specific data is not discussed, overall, sport participation had a small positive effect on academic performance. Moderator analyses indicated that sports participation was most beneficial for academic performance when it was at a moderate dose (i.e., 1–2 h·wk−1), compared with no sport or a high dose of sport (3+ h·wk−1). Sports participation during school hours was more beneficial for academic performance compared with sport participation outside school hours. Based on mostly low-quality studies, we found some evidence that sport could positively affect academic performance in children and adolescents. It appears that sport participation of a moderate dose and at school could be used to promote academic performance. However, if this field were to inform policy, high-quality studies are needed that provide insight into the effect of dose and sport characteristics on academic performance.
Taking a Health Perspective on Roller Derby: A Qualitative Exploration of Women’s Experiences, Jane Scullion, Cathy Bulley, women, Volume 2(1), (January 2022). Although far fewer women exercise regularly than men, one women-dominated sport growing in popularity internationally is roller derby. A limited number of predominantly US-based and qualitative studies have explored roller derby. This Scotland-based qualitative study explored reasons for women starting, continuing, and stopping participation in roller derby in order to inform people involved in promoting physical activity for health benefits. Semi-structured interviews with six participants from a Scottish women’s roller derby league were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis generated five super-ordinate themes. Most participants learned about roller derby from watching the sport on film, attending a bout (game), or word of mouth. The main motivators and benefits of participating in this sport were found to be challenge, enjoyment, increased confidence, health benefits, and motivation to exercise. Participants were empowered by involvement and motivated by community, team spirit, and support to develop. Despite high commitment, some women could not sustain team involvement due to barriers such as injury, changing life roles, and conflicting commitments—a lack of support was described when this happened. Greater inclusivity is needed to enable changing levels of participation as women’s commitments change, to facilitate ongoing health benefits and inspire others.
The role of sports volunteering as a signal in the job application process, Sören Wallrodt, Lutz Thieme, European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 20(3), pp.255-275, (2020). To examine the signaling effect of volunteering activities in CVs, 474 people involved in hiring processes (i.e. hiring managers) participated in this study. Both sports volunteering activities and internship experience were examined as different experimental conditions. Moreover, the subjects were randomly split into different experimental groups and asked to rate the skills and qualifications of a female applicant, and whether they would invite the applicant to an interview and what would be the salary offered upon hiring her for three different jobs. Sports volunteering had a positive effect on hiring managers’ perception of the qualifications of the applicant for all three jobs but affected the outcome of the application differently concerning the likelihood of inviting the applicant to a job interview or the salary that would be offered, but only if the job was closely related to the volunteering activity. The effects of internship experience were marginal.
Where are the Moms? Strategies to Recruit Female Youth-Sport Coaches, Krista Diedrich, Strategies: A Journal for physical and sport educators, Volume 33, pp12-17, (2020). There are numerous benefits to sport participation among children and adolescents and coaches play a significant role in getting youth, especially girls, involved in sports and continuing participation in sports. Despite the advances of girls and women in sport participation since Title IX, the majority of youth sport coaches are men. Female coaches can be important role models for all youth in sport. The purpose of this article is to describe the benefits of having female coaches and potential strategies to encourage more women to coach.
Yarning with the Stars Project: An Indigenous evaluation protocol for a sport for development and peace program, Rose Whitau, Helen Ockerby, Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 7(13), pp.46-54, (September 2019). In Australia, the gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and their non-Indigenous peers is significant in terms of attendance, retention to Year 12, and literacy and numeracy skills, with the gap widening in regional and remote contexts. School-based, “academy-style” engagement programs work to close this gap by providing holistic support services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students while requiring a certain level of school attendance by program participants. Shooting Stars is an engagement program based in seven remote and regional schools in Western Australia, where it uses netball and other incentives to engage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander girls in their education, while promoting their health and wellbeing. Shooting Stars evaluates the efficacy of its services through collation of attendance data, participant case studies, and yarning circles. The methods used in the yarning circles research were developed over 18 months in collaboration with Shooting Stars participants, localized Shooting Stars steering committees, and Shooting Stars staff. This paper presents the evaluation protocols for the Shooting Stars program, focusing on the yarning circles’ methods in order to provide a framework or model of Indigenous evaluation methods for others working within this space.
Physical Activity and Sports—Real Health Benefits: A Review with Insight into the Public Health of Sweden, Christer Malm, Johan Jakobsson, Andreas Isaksson, sports, Volume 7(5), 127, (May 2019). Positive effects from sports are achieved primarily through physical activity, but secondary effects bring health benefits such as psychosocial and personal development and less alcohol consumption. This narrative review summarizes research and presents health-related data from Swedish authorities. Aerobic physical activity has been shown to benefit weight maintenance after prior weight loss, reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome, normalize blood lipids, and help with cancer/cancer-related side effects (Table 2 and Table 3), while effects on chronic pain are not as clear. Muscle-strengthening physical activity has, in contrast to aerobic exercise, been shown to reduce muscle atrophy, risk of falling, and osteoporosis in the elderly. Among the elderly, both men and women adapt positively to strength training. Strength training also prevents obesity, enhances cognitive performance if done alongside aerobic exercise, counteracts the development of neurodegenerative diseases, reduces the risk of metabolic syndrome, counteracts cancer/cancer-related side effects, reduces pain and disability in joint diseases, and enhances bone density.
Girls on the Run: Impact of a Physical Activity Youth Development: Program on Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes, Maureen Weiss, Lindsay Kipp, Alison Phillips Reichter, et al., Pediatric Exercise Science, Volume 31, pp.330-340, (2019). Girls on the Run is an after-school physical activity-based positive youth development program designed to enhance girls’ social, psychological, and physical development. We evaluated the effectiveness of the program by employing a longitudinal design and mixed methods. Girls (N = 203; aged 8–11 y) completed survey measures of positive youth development constructs (competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring), physical activity, and sedentary behavior prior to, at the end of, and 3 months after the season. Subsamples of girls, coaches, caregivers, and school personnel participated in focus groups. Coaches completed information about their team’s community impact project and number of girls who completed the season-ending 5k. The full sample improved in confidence and connection, whereas girls who started below the preseason average showed the greatest gains from preseason to postseason on all measures, and scores were maintained or continued to improve at follow-up. All stakeholders in focus groups corroborated evidence of season-long improvement in social and emotional behaviors and health outcomes. Involvement in the community impact project contributed to girls’ growth in character and empathy skills. Findings provide empirical evidence that Girls on the Run is effective in promoting positive youth development, including season-long and lasting change in competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and physical activity, especially among girls who exhibited lower preseason scores than their peers.
Does Athletic Participation Signal Employability? An Experimental Analysis of Male and Female Athlete Job Applicants, Brendan Dwyer, Jennifer Gellock, Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, Volume 11, pp.40-64, (2018). College athletes face high expectations to compete on the field and in the classroom. However, the time demands associated with athletics and academics often limit their ability to engage in traditional college experiences. Internships or practical job trainings are one such opportunity unfortunately forgone due to the time constraints of the contemporary college athlete experience. This results in an issue when applying for jobs outside of sport, as direct internship experience positively impacts an individual’s likelihood to be hired into an entry-level position. The current study explored the perceived value of intercollegiate athletic participation compared to and in addition to direct internship experience via four résumé evaluation experiments. Two hundred and thirty five individuals with hiring experience participated; results suggested athletic participation was perceived as at least equally favorable to direct internship experience. However, male athletes without direct internship experience were more likely to receive an interview and received higher unobserved attribute ratings than female athletes with the exact same credentials.
Afterschool school triathlon training for 11- to 14-year old girls: Influences on academic motivation and achievement Jennifer Gatz and Angela M Kelly, Health Education Journal, Volume 77(2), pp.156-168, (2018). This study evaluated the effect of a Transformation through Triathlon after school programme in promoting health status, academic motivation and socioemotional development in at-risk girls aged 11–14 years attending middle school in the USA. Participants (N = 29) were invited to participate in the 20-week after school triathlon training and health promotion programme, and some volunteered for interviews. They were selected based on school personnel characterising them as at-risk for low self-esteem, a sedentary lifestyle, and/or classification as overweight. The programme combined empowerment lessons, nutrition and health science education twice per week from mid-March until June 2014, and after-school activities such as triathlon-specific training and group fitness classes three times per week through until July, with a culminating youth sprint triathlon (300-yard swim, 7-mile bike ride, and 1.5-mile run). Intervention participants learned to self-regulate their learning and set goals that promoted fitness, academic achievement, better attitudes, and resilience. After school community and family inclusive programmes with a structured fitness component increase confidence, self-determination and academic achievement though social support structures.
The Effect of Sport on the Level of Positivity and Well-Being in Adolescents Engaged in Sport Regularly, Yakup Bakir, Murat Kangalgil, Journal of Education and Training Studies, Volume 5(11), pp.98-104, (2017). Sport, an element of universal culture, is a prominent tool that brings individuals with different languages, races and religions together. Sport is generally defined as activities that positively affect the psychological health of people and bring about social and moral benefits besides its physical benefits. Mental well-being is defined as the individual's awareness of their own abilities, their abilities to overcome stress in life, being productive and useful in business life and contributing to community via the their ability (WHO, 2004). Positivity is defined as the main determinant of subjective well-being and is expressed as a tendency to evaluate all aspects of life that is already good. This study aimed to investigate whether sport is effective on mental well-being and positivity. The study group is composed by forming 3 groups of 20 students from 10th grade students. The groups were equalled in terms of some variables like age, gender, sports background etc. The groups were called as the sports activities group, social activities group and the control group. While the participants in the experimental group were engaged in regular and scheduled sports activities including training and contests, the participants in the social activities group engaged in regular social activities. The participants in the control group led their routine lives. After a period of 10 weeks, the tests given at the beginning of the study were administrated again, and test scores of the students in all three groups were compared. According to the results, while there was an increase in the mental well-being scores of the sports activity and social activity groups, there was a decrease in the mental well-being scores of the control group. In the study, when the positivity and mental well-being scores of the students in all three groups according to gender were compared, the difference between the groups was not found significant.
Physical activity in European adolescents and associations with anxiety, depression and well-being, Elaine McMahon, Paul Corcoran, Grace O’Regan, et al., European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Volume 26, pp.111–122, (2017). In this cross-sectional study, physical activity, sport participation and associations with well-being, anxiety and depressive symptoms were examined in a large representative sample of European adolescents. A school-based survey was completed by 11,110 adolescents from ten European countries who took part in the SEYLE (Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe) study. The questionnaire included items assessing physical activity, sport participation and validated instruments assessing well-being (WHO-5), depressive symptoms (BDI-II) and anxiety (SAS). Multi-level mixed effects linear regression was used to examine associations between physical activity/sport participation and mental health measures. A minority of the sample (17.9 % of boys and 10.7 % of girls) reported sufficient activity based on WHO guidelines (60 min + daily). The mean number of days of at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous activity in the past 2 weeks was 7.5 ± 4.4 among boys and 5.9 days ± 4.3 among girls. Frequency of activity was positively correlated with well-being and negatively correlated with both anxiety and depressive symptoms, up to a threshold of moderate frequency of activity. In a multi-level mixed effects model more frequent physical activity and participation in sport were both found to independently contribute to greater well-being and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in both sexes. Increasing activity levels and sports participation among the least active young people should be a target of community and school-based interventions to promote well-being. There does not appear to be an additional benefit to mental health associated with meeting the WHO-recommended levels of activity.
Promoting the Leadership Development of Girls through Physical Education and Sport, Dana Voelker, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, Volume 87(3), pp. 9-15, (2016). Leadership is a powerful life skill that influences the future of our local, national and global communities. Despite the many positive and productive changes observed in the leadership opportunities for women and girls, they remain highly under-represented in positional leadership roles. The leadership development and empowerment of women and girls has become an increasingly popular topic in books, websites and “strong girl” advertisement campaigns. At a grassroots level, physical educators and coaches must attend to these efforts in novel ways, as physical education and sport provide unique opportunities to develop leadership skills. This article discusses recommendations grounded in both the academic literature and professional practice, including: (1) embracing leadership diversity and deconstructing gender stereotyping, (2) building networking and mentorship, and (3) encouraging girls to use their voice and exercise leadership skills. Specific practical suggestions and a vignette are also provided to help physical educators and coaches maximize the leadership development of girls.
What Goes into a Medal: Women's Inclusion and Success at the Olympic Games, Marcus Noland, Kevin Stahler, Peterson Institute for International Economics, Working Papers 14-7, (October 2014). In examining determinants of women's participation and performance in the Olympics, the authors find that female inclusion and success are not merely functions of size, wealth, and the advantages accruing to countries hosting the Olympic Games. Female success results from a more complex process involving the socioeconomic status of women and, more weakly, broad societal attitudes on gender issues. Female labor force participation and educational attainment are tightly correlated with both participation and outcomes, even controlling for per capita income. Female educational attainment is strongly correlated with both the breadth of participation across sporting events and success in those events.
Women, Sports, and Development: Does It Pay to Let Girls Play? Barbara Kotschwar, Peterson Institute for International Economics, Policy Briefs 14-8, (March 2014). This Policy Brief reviews the evidence that young women and youth in general who participate in sports are more likely to attain educational success and specifically that girls who play sports do better in school, suffer fewer health problems, achieve more in areas dominated by men, such as science, and hold better jobs as adults. The trend is especially striking among girls from minority groups, who appear to experience greater social and economic mobility, more confidence, and even more personal safety if they have participated in sports. While much of the evidence on girls’ sports participation is preliminary or anecdotal, it is clear that girls benefit from engaging in sports and net the same positive gains available to boys who do so. Bridging the gap in girls’ sports participation will expedite and enhance countries’ gender equity gains.
The Effects of a Community and School Sport-Based Program on Urban Indigenous Adolescents’ Life Skills and Physical Activity Levels: The SCP Case Study, Louisa Peralta, Donna O’Connor, Wayne Cotton, et al., Health, Volume 6(18), (2014). The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a community and school sport program (SCP) on Indigenous adolescents’ life skills and physical activity levels within program sessions. A secondary aim was to determine the acceptability of the SCP. The objective of the SCP is to encourage improved educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students using sport. Such outcomes may include an increase in school attendance, strengthened engagement with school, improved attitudes to schooling and improved achievement in learning. A recent evaluation of these outcomes found that the SCP is meeting these objectives with girls reporting a 11.5% increase and boys reporting a 15.4% increase in attendance since joining the SCP, more than 90% reporting a positive attitude towards school, 90% of lower secondary students maintaining or improving literacy levels and 92% maintaining or improving numeracy understanding. This study highlights the need for partnerships between Indigenous community organisations and schools to design sport-based programs to promote Indigenous adolescents’ MVPA.
Gender, Academics, and Interscholastic Sports Participation at the School Level: A Gender-specific Analysis of the Relationship between Interscholastic Sports Participation and AP Enrollment, Philip Veliz, Sohaila Shakib, Sociological Focus, Volume 47(2), pp.101-120, (2014). While literature demonstrates that interscholastic sports participation is associated with positive academic outcomes, this relationship is rarely analyzed at a macro level (the school level). To date, there is no research examining whether increases in schools’ female and male interscholastic sports participation rates are associated with increases in female and male advanced placement (AP) enrollment rates. Using a national sample of 4,644 public high schools during the 2009–2010 school year, the authors test several gender-specific hypotheses linked with the association between schools’ sport participation rates and AP enrollment rates (AP math, AP science, AP foreign language, and overall AP enrollment). The findings reveal that schools’ female and male sports participation rates have a positive association with schools’ female and male AP math, AP science, AP foreign language, and overall AP enrollment rates. Moreover, the findings suggest that females benefit more than males in regard to the positive relationship between interscholastic sports and AP enrollment.
Participation in Vigorous Sports, Not Moderate Sports, Is Positively Associated With Cardiorespiratory Fitness Among Adolescent Girls, Daniel R. Taber, Charlotte Pratt, Eileen Y. Charneco, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 11(3), pp.596-603, (2014). There is controversy regarding whether moderately-intense sports can improve physical fitness, which declines throughout adolescence among girls. The objective was to estimate the association between moderate and vigorous sports participation and cardiorespiratory fitness in a racially diverse sample of adolescent girls. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using a modified physical work capacity test in 1029 eighth-grade girls participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls. Girls reported sports in which they participated in the last year on an organized activity questionnaire. Using general linear mixed models, the study regressed absolute and relative fitness on the number of vigorous and moderate sports in which girls participated, race/ethnicity, age, treatment group, fat mass, fat-free mass, and an interaction between race and fat-free mass. The number of vigorous sports in which girls participated was positively associated with absolute fitness and relative fitness. Associations were reduced, but not eliminated, after controlling for MET-weighted MVPA. Participation in moderate sports was not associated with either fitness measure. The authors conclude that vigorous sports participation is positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness. Future longitudinal research should analyze whether promoting vigorous sports at an early age can prevent age-related declines in cardiorespiratory fitness among adolescent girls.
A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport, Rochelle Eime, Janet Young, Jack Harvey, et al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 10, Article 98, (August 2013). This paper first presents the results of a systematic review of the psychological and social health benefits of participation in sport by children and adolescents. A total of 3668 publications were initially identified, of which 30 met the selection criteria. There were many different psychological and social health benefits reported, with the most commonly being improved self-esteem, social interaction followed by fewer depressive symptoms. Sport may be associated with improved psychosocial health above and beyond improvements attributable to participation in PA. Specifically, team sport seems to be associated with improved health outcomes compared to individual activities, due to the social nature of the participation. For girls some of the benefits identified in the literature included: sport club activities had a positive influence on the development of self-esteem; one study found that the relationship between achievement and self-esteem was partially mediated by girls’ perceptions of competence and interest in team sport, and mastery in team sport contributed to global self-esteem development; A US study in which high school students were interviewed at two time points one year apart, showed that for females, but not for males, team sport involvement was protective against depressed mood state associated with poor school performance.
An Evaluation of the Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund, Richardson E and Papathomas A, Loughborough University, (2013). This report evaluates the social and personal development impact of the International Tennis Federation’s (ITF) Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund (WTDF). This is one of the first scientific studies of its kind to investigate how participation in wheelchair tennis through this program affects the lives of those individuals involved. The program operates in 39 countries. The study found that involvement in wheelchair tennis led to numerous psychological and social benefits, which transferred into other domains of life. The psychological benefits included increased self-confidence and empowerment (particularly for women), increased opportunities for independence, and improved perceptions of persons with a disability. The program also created opportunities, such as sports scholarships for competitors and career pathways in coaching. Wheelchair tennis was also shown to have the potential to improve an individual’s self-perception. “I had a negative mentality” said one participant, “But, as time goes, I grow up and I realise that I don’t have to be ashamed of myself or who I am”. Players involved in the WTDF experience reported an improved social life, both through making friends and as a result of greater self-confidence. Participants felt wanted, supported, and worthy of someone else’s time. The program also helps to challenge the view society takes on disability.

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Physical, mental, and social wellbeing

Sport and physical activity participation can support physical, social, and mental wellbeing for women and girls.

Impact

Physical, mental, and social wellbeing

Sport and physical activity participation can support physical, social, and mental wellbeing for women and girls. ^{12, 13, 16, 25, 37, 38}

Physical wellbeing

Physical inactivity has a significant impact on the likelihood of developing many diseases including type 2 diabetes, bowel cancer, dementia, coronary heart disease and stroke, as well as uterine and breast cancer in females. ^{39, 40, 41}

Data from the most recent Australian Institute of Health and Welfare ‘Physical activity across the life stages report’ shows that many Australian females were not sufficiently active. ⁴⁰

Ages 2-5 years - In 2011–12, 59% of girls (compared to 62% of boys) met the physical activity guideline, while about one-quarter (24% of girls and 25% of boys) met the sedentary screen-based behaviour guideline. Overall, only 16% of girls and 17% of boys met both the physical activity and sedentary screen-based behaviour guidelines.
5-12 years - In 2011–12, 25% of girls (compared to 27% of boys) met the physical activity guideline. More girls met the sedentary screen-based behaviour guideline than boys (40% compared with 30%). Overall, similar proportions of girls and boys met both guidelines (11% and 13% respectively).
13 – 17 years – Similar proportions of girls and boys met the physical activity guideline (7.2% and 8.4% respectively); however, a higher proportion (26%) of girls met the sedentary screen-based behaviour guideline, compared with 15% of boys.
18 – 64 years – 22% of women met the strength-based activity guideline (compared to 26% of men). The proportion meeting the guideline decreased as age increased for both women and men. Women aged 35–44 and 55–64 undertook the least amount of physical activity, doing 32 minutes per day, on average. Women aged 18–24, 25–34 and 45–54 completed slightly more physical activity per day (35, 38 and 35 minutes per day, on average, respectively).
65 years and over - The proportions of women (23%) and men (27%) who met the physical activity guideline were similar. However, with increasing age, the proportion meeting the physical activity guideline among women decreased while for men the proportion remained the same. Among women, 28% of those aged 65–74 met the physical activity guideline, compared with 19% of women aged 75–84, and only 9.5% of women aged 85 and over. For strength-based activity, 16% of women aged 65–74 met the guidelines, compared with 8.1% of women aged 85 and over. This decrease was not seen in men, where the proportion completing at least 2 days of strength-based activities remained relatively similar for all age groups (around 13%–14%).

Analysis of longitudinal data on Australian children found that those who participated in sports – particularly team-sports for boys and individual sports for girls – spent less time playing electronic or computer games and were less likely to be sedentary overall. ⁴²

Many women and girls also participate in sport and physical activities to gain or maintain physical fitness or health. ^{25, 30, 31, 32, 33}

A 2024 analysis of over 400,000 adults in the United States who provided survey data on leisure-time physical activity found that women derived greater gains in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk reduction from equivalent doses of leisure-time physical activity compared to men (i.e. women only had to do 140 minutes per week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity to reach the same benefit that men required 300 minutes to achieve). ³⁷
A 2023 randomised controlled trial of recreational handball for postmenopausal women found improvements in VO2peak and aerobic performance achieved after 16 weeks of training were maintained at 36 weeks. Continuing the training for another 20-weeks led to further improvements in lipid profile markers and physical fitness variables. ⁴³

Social and mental wellbeing

Sport, particularly team-based sport, can positively impact social and mental wellbeing, including by fostering positive peer interaction, social engagement, and enjoyment. ^{4, 5, 7, 15, 25, 30, 32, 33, 34, 44, 45, 46, 47}

The 2019 Suncorp Australian Youth and Confidence research found that 65% of girls aged 11-17 years surveyed said that playing sport made them feel great about themselves, and a similar number acknowledge that sport can make them feel proud. ¹⁹
The Women’s Sports Foundation in the UK highlights that girls and women who play sports have higher levels of confidence and self-esteem, lower levels of depression, generally more positive body image, and experience higher states of psychological well-being than girls and women who do not play sports. ^{12, 13}
A 2017 European study found that more frequent physical activity and sport participation independently contributed to greater well-being and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescent females and males. ⁴
A 2013 evaluation of the international Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund found that the psychological benefits included increased self-confidence and empowerment (particularly for women), increased opportunities for independence, and improved perceptions of persons with disability. ⁴⁸

How disabled women athletes are helping mainstream sport clubs become more inclusive, Elizabeth Wright, ABC, (11 December 2023). In recent years, Frankston Basketball has struggled to attract disabled people to the club. "We couldn't cater to adults or anybody in a wheelchair or anybody that had a different disability," Ms Thomas said. "It's not the person's disability that stops them from coming, it's the barriers of the programs not being accessible, the people not being trained." To remove these barriers, the club is participating in a national program called the Building Inclusive Sport Clubs Project.
Feeling more confident, active and happier: What the World Dwarf Games mean to the Australian women's basketball team, Julie Dickson, Siren Sport/ABC, (5 November 2023). While the Netherlands proved too strong in the gold medal match, the first Australian women's basketball team to play at the World Dwarf Games didn't just bring home a silver medal. They changed the game for short statured women. Kate Colley is one of the newcomers. Before joining the new team, Kate did little exercise. She says training for the Games has helped her to incorporate more exercise into her everyday life and has also boosted her confidence.
How to create a more equitable future for women with a disability in sport, Georgia Munro-Cook, Siren Sport/ABC, (26 April 2023). In 2012, my life was abruptly up-ended after a planned routine hip surgery instead uncovered something far worse, which resulted in disability. On top of the excruciating chronic pain, limited walking ability, and constant brain fog, what was the most devastating to me at the time was that I could no longer play the game I love. Basketball was one of the most important parts of my life. It felt like I had lost part of my identity. Then someone suggested playing wheelchair basketball. The thought had never really crossed my mind as, like most people, I assumed you had to use a wheelchair full-time. But this person assured me that actually people with many different types of disability played wheelchair basketball, including many people like me. So, I went and tried it out. And it was incredible — I could play sport again. But it wasn't just the actual game of basketball that was important in regaining my sense of self. My experience playing with the Australian Gliders has helped me come to terms with my disability and learn from others in how to negotiate living in a world that still puts up barriers for so many people with a disability.
Why Equitable Opportunity Matters: What a Life in Sport Provides Women and Girls Beyond the Game, Mim Haigh, Athlete Assessments, (2020). While girls’ and women’s opportunities to participate in sport have improved following the passage of Title IX in the United States, boys and men continue to be involved in sport substantially more than their female counterparts, and this gap only grows as they get older. Indeed, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations (2018-2019) boys have 1.13 million more opportunities to play sports than girls each year. The narrative extends well beyond the competition arena with the research clearly stating that from C-suite executives or developing leaders, to those entering the workforce, college, or school, with their practiced problem-solving abilities, leadership, and team building capabilities, a background in sport uniquely positions women and girls for success in any non-sporting endeavor. Some benefits or skills identified as being fostered by sport participation include Self-awareness, Self-belief and Self-confidence, Teamwork, Leadership, Driving standards, Discretionary effort, Performance under pressure, and Winning and losing.
Benefits – Why Sports Participation for Girls and Women, Women’s Sports Foundation (30 August 2016). Sport has been one of the most important socio-cultural learning experiences for boys and men for many years. Those same benefits should be afforded our daughters. It is important for all of us to know that: High school girls who play sports are less likely to be involved in an unintended pregnancy; more likely to get better grades in school and more likely to graduate than girls who do not play sports; Girls and women who play sports have higher levels of confidence and self-esteem and lower levels of depression; Girls and women who play sports have a more positive body image and experience higher states of psychological well-being than girls and women who do not play sports. Sport is where boys have traditionally learned about teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviors—critical skills necessary for success in the workplace. In an economic environment where the quality of our children’s lives will be dependent on two-income families, our daughters cannot be less prepared for the highly competitive workplace than our sons. It is no accident that 80% of the female executives at Fortune 500 companies identified themselves as former “tomboys”—having played sports. Right now, however, women who don’t know the written and unwritten rules of sport are at a disadvantage in understanding business models of organization based on sport. How important is it that our daughters learn the same rules as our sons? It’s critical.

Chasing Equity: The Triumphs, Challenges, and Opportunities in Sports for Girls and Women, Women's Sports Foundation, (January 2020). There are distinct and vast benefits to girls’ participation in sport and physical activity at all levels of sport participation from grassroots to professional sport and beyond. Girls and women reap significant benefits from sport participation that are both immediate and long-term. Girls who do not participate in sport are less content with their lives than female sport participants. Sport involvement enhances girls’ quality of life as female athletes often benefit more from sport participation than male athletes. Sport is a favorable domain to support the fostering of leadership skills in girls. Main benefits discussed are physical, social, emotional, and academic.
Physical activity across the life stages, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (2018). This report presents information on the physical activity and sedentary participation rate of Australians across the life stages by age, gender, and other relevant demographic characteristics, reported against Australia’s Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines.
Why female athletes make winning entrepreneurs, EY and espnW, (2017). is there something about sport that primes women for the highstakes world of entrepreneurship? What are the transferable attitudes and behaviors that competitive sport instills? And, more broadly, what can women in the workforce at all levels learn from women who have leapt from the field of play to the founder’s chair? Our discussions with 22 entrepreneurs identified five winning strategies they developed as athletes that give them an edge in launching and scaling their own enterprises: Confidence — in their abilities, even during rough patches; Single-mindedness — an unwavering focus on the challenges ahead; Passion — the determination to succeed in everything they do; Leadership — the ability to lead and inspire a team of likeminded individuals; Resilience — the ability to take failure as “feedback” that will only make them stronger. In this report, we explore each of these attributes and suggest how they can be translated into behaviors that women can adopt to help them start, lead and grow their own companies.
Her Life Depends On It III: Sport, Physical Activity, and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls and Women, Staurowsky, E. J., DeSousa, M. J., Miller, K. E., et al., Women’s Sports Foundation, (May 2015). A comprehensive report that reviews existing and emerging research on the links between participation in sport and physical activity and the health and wellbeing of American girls and women. As with the previous editions in 2004 and 2009, this study also confirms that physical activity and sport provides the critical foundation, in no small part, that allows girls and women to lead healthy, strong, and fulfilled lives. The report’s contents reflect the review of 1,500 studies, nearly 400 covered since the previous edition. While the report’s focus continues to be on U.S. girls and women, selected research findings that offer perspective regarding girls and women worldwide is also referenced in order to provide some perspective and context. The research compiled in this updated report strongly suggests that sport and physical activity provide conditions that help to ensure girls’ health and wellbeing (physical, social, psychological, and academic). The full report offers expansive documentation on the impact sport and physical activity has in the lives of girls and women. In this report, we also highlight the emerging areas of research that focus on protecting the health of female athletes and offer insights into the steps that need to be taken to ensure their health and safety. Some important selected findings identified include:
- Physically active women are less likely to suffer from cardiovascular disease; have reduced risk of cancer, particularly breast, colon, lung, ovarian, endometrial, and esophageal; improved bone health; less likely to use most illicit drugs; reduced risk of depression and less likely to create a suicide plan; and educational gains.
- As a general trend, females across the board, regardless of age, race, or social class, are shortchanged in realizing the benefits of participation in physically challenging activities. However, females from lower economic backgrounds, females of color and females with disabilities suffer even greater negative health consequences as a result of less engagement in physical activity and less access to sport and physical fitness programs.
- The health benefits realized from the participation of girls and women in sport and physical activity vary by socioeconomic level and racial/ethnic group. Throughout the report, available findings document health risks and vulnerabilities for females of color as well as for girls and women living in urban and rural settings.
- The playing field may help to buffer against some kinds of substance use, such as tobacco or illicit “hard” drugs, while exacerbating the risk of others, such as smokeless tobacco, alcohol, and anabolic androgenic steroids. Traditionally girls have tended to have lower rates of substance use than boys, but the long-standing gender gap is narrowing – especially for those substances that have most typically been closely linked to sports.
- Most studies show lower rates of drug use by female athletes compared to their non-athlete peers, suggesting that sports participation may help protect girls against illicit drug use. Explanations for this relationship vary.
- Research suggests that under some conditions, athletic participation may reduce risky sexual behaviors in adolescent girls, such as early sexual initiation, multiple sex partners, or unprotected sex. In contrast to the protective effects of sports participation in adolescence, the effects for young adult women are less clear. Several studies have found that female college athletes are actually at higher risk than their non-athlete peers for some forms of unsafe sex, particularly in the context of heavy drinking. Most studies found that athletic participation is associated with reduced odds of teen pregnancy.
- Growing numbers of studies are exploring how sports participation may serve to protect girls and women against some mental health risks while considering how it can exacerbate others. All other things being equal, athletes tend to enjoy a greater sense of self-esteem and feel less depression than their sedentary peers. Yet, perhaps because they hold themselves to a more demanding physical standard, athletes are also at greater risk for eating disorders. Moreover, frequent exercise or sports activity may, in some cases, be a red flag for depression, low self-esteem, poor body image, or even suicidality when over-exercise is used as a coping mechanism or a strategy for weight loss. In essence, sports participation in moderation enhances mental health; in excess, it may (literally) be overkill.
Female participation in sport & physical activity, VicHealth, (2015). Females of all ages generally have lower physical activity participation rates than males. Increasing physical activity levels for females is important for health and mental wellbeing. Some of the health benefits of sport and physical activity for women identified include:
- Even having a low level of physical activity is better for health than not being active at all.
- Prevention and management of disease, such as: coronary heart disease, strokes, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s Disease and dementia
- Increased health, fitness, body and bone strength
- Weight loss and prevention of obesity
- Reduced risks of mortality
- Increased mental health and improved wellbeing
- Increase in social connections and enjoyment
- Understanding and addressing the barriers preventing more female participation in physical activity is complex. Evidence shows that gender and the needs of females should be considered when developing specific physical activity opportunities.

Sex Differences in Association of Physical Activity With All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality, Hongwei Ji, Martha Gulati, Tzu Yu Huang, et al., Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Volume 83(8), pp.783-793, (2024). Although physical activity is widely recommended for reducing cardiovascular and all-cause mortality risks, female individuals consistently lag behind male individuals in exercise engagement. In a prospective study of 412,413 U.S. adults (55% female, age 44 ± 17 years) who provided survey data on leisure-time physical activity, we examined sex-specific multivariable-adjusted associations of physical activity measures (frequency, duration, intensity, type) with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality from 1997 through 2019. Men reached their maximal survival benefit of HR 0.81 from 300 min/wk of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, whereas women achieved similar benefit at 140 min/wk and then continued to reach a maximum survival benefit of HR 0.76 also at ∼300 min/wk. Sex-specific findings were similar for cardiovascular death and consistent across all measures of aerobic activity as well as muscle strengthening activity. Women compared with men derived greater gains in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk reduction from equivalent doses of leisure-time physical activity. These findings could enhance efforts to close the “gender gap” by motivating especially women to engage in any regular leisure-time physical activity.
Barriers to Physical Activity for Women with Physical Disabilities: A Systematic Review, Jurgi Olasagasti-Ibargoien, Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro, Patxi León-Guereño, et al., Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, Volume 8(2), 82, (June 2023). Physical activity is essential for women with physical disabilities. This review aims to identify the barriers they face in practicing sport. There is sufficient theoretical evidence on the benefits of sporting activity; in the case of people with disabilities, it contributes to their functional independence, improves their physical condition, performance and physical capacity, favors the prevention and correction of deformities and postural defects, reduces stress, improves self-confidence, emotional state, relationships with others, and enjoyment and interest, among other things. However, a second important finding of this review is that barriers related to physical disability, such as health, mobility, or the degree of dependence on others, also prevent women from practicing sport, thus reducing the possibility of appropriating all the benefits mentioned above.
How Can Sport-Based Interventions Improve Health among Women and Girls? A Scoping Review, Maja Pedersen, Abby King, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 20(6), 4818, (March 2023). Sport has been identified by the World Health Organization as an underutilized yet important contributor to global physical activity, by UNESCO as a fundamental right, and by the United Nations as a promising driver for gender equity through improved long-term health of women and girls. Although sport-based interventions have been popularized to advance educational, social, and political development globally, little attention has been given to its impacts on health outcomes among women and girls. We undertook a scoping review of research on sport-based interventions for health among women and girls to summarize current research approaches and findings. PRISMA scoping review guidelines were observed. Online databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science) were used to identify peer-reviewed records published through August 2022. The interventions identified (n = 4) targeted health outcomes such as gender-based violence, HIV prevention, reproductive health, and child marriage. Based on our review, we recommend four key opportunities to advance the field of sport-based interventions in addressing health equity among women and girls. In addition, we highlight promising future research directions to broaden sport engagement of women and girls, improve long-term health, and build capacity toward health equity.
Detrimental Changes in Health during Menopause: The Role of Physical Activity, Ryan Hulteen , Kara Marlatt , Timothy Allerton, et al., International Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 44(6), pp.389-396, (2023). Midlife women experience changes in cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health during menopause that negatively impacts their overall quality of life. Factors that contribute to these increases in cardiometabolic risk include weight gain as well as increases in fat mass (particularly abdominal adiposity), insulin resistance, and vascular dysfunction. Other deleterious changes in physical health (e. g. reduced sleep health, bone density, and balance) as well as changes in psychosocial health (e. g. mood, anxiety, and depression) often coincide and are linked to these increases in cardiometabolic risk. Physical activity and exercise are important lifestyle components that have been demonstrated to improve cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health, yet physical activity and exercise is known to decline during perimenopause and into the postmenopausal years. In this narrative review, we summarize these changes in overall health during menopause as well as how declining physical activity contributes to these changes. Additionally, we discuss how incorporating physical activity and exercise during menopause can potentially ameliorate health declines. We conclude that there exists a significant, positive impact of physical activity on cardiometabolic, physical, and psychological health among midlife women, particularly if undertaken during the perimenopausal and postmenopausal years.
Multicomponent recreational team handball training improves global health status in postmenopausal women at the long term – A randomised controlled trial, Rita Pereira, Peter Krustrup, Carlo Castagna, et al., European Journal of Sport Science, Volume 23(8), pp.1789-1799, (2023). We evaluated the long-term effects of a recreational team handball-based multicomponent training on broad-spectrum health and physical fitness markers of inactive postmenopausal women. Improvements in VO_2peak and aerobic performance achieved after 16 weeks of training were maintained at 36 weeks. The 20-week extension of the training intervention resulted in further improvements in lipid profile markers and physical fitness variables. Recreational team handball could be suggested as an effective and safe strategy to counteract postmenopausal health-related constraints.
Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Katherine Owen, Bridget Foley, Katrina Wilhite, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 54(2), pp.299-306, (February 2022). Our aim was to systematically review and combine via meta-analyses evidence of the association between sport participation and academic performance in children and adolescents. From 115 eligible studies, most of which had a high risk of bias (k = 87), we meta-analyzed 298 effect sizes. While gender specific data is not discussed, overall, sport participation had a small positive effect on academic performance. Moderator analyses indicated that sports participation was most beneficial for academic performance when it was at a moderate dose (i.e., 1–2 h·wk−1), compared with no sport or a high dose of sport (3+ h·wk−1). Sports participation during school hours was more beneficial for academic performance compared with sport participation outside school hours. Based on mostly low-quality studies, we found some evidence that sport could positively affect academic performance in children and adolescents. It appears that sport participation of a moderate dose and at school could be used to promote academic performance. However, if this field were to inform policy, high-quality studies are needed that provide insight into the effect of dose and sport characteristics on academic performance.
Taking a Health Perspective on Roller Derby: A Qualitative Exploration of Women’s Experiences, Jane Scullion, Cathy Bulley, women, Volume 2(1), (January 2022). Although far fewer women exercise regularly than men, one women-dominated sport growing in popularity internationally is roller derby. A limited number of predominantly US-based and qualitative studies have explored roller derby. This Scotland-based qualitative study explored reasons for women starting, continuing, and stopping participation in roller derby in order to inform people involved in promoting physical activity for health benefits. Semi-structured interviews with six participants from a Scottish women’s roller derby league were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis generated five super-ordinate themes. Most participants learned about roller derby from watching the sport on film, attending a bout (game), or word of mouth. The main motivators and benefits of participating in this sport were found to be challenge, enjoyment, increased confidence, health benefits, and motivation to exercise. Participants were empowered by involvement and motivated by community, team spirit, and support to develop. Despite high commitment, some women could not sustain team involvement due to barriers such as injury, changing life roles, and conflicting commitments—a lack of support was described when this happened. Greater inclusivity is needed to enable changing levels of participation as women’s commitments change, to facilitate ongoing health benefits and inspire others.
Yarning with the Stars Project: An Indigenous evaluation protocol for a sport for development and peace program, Rose Whitau, Helen Ockerby, Journal of Sport for Development, Volume 7(13), pp.46-54, (September 2019). In Australia, the gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and their non-Indigenous peers is significant in terms of attendance, retention to Year 12, and literacy and numeracy skills, with the gap widening in regional and remote contexts. School-based, “academy-style” engagement programs work to close this gap by providing holistic support services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students while requiring a certain level of school attendance by program participants. Shooting Stars is an engagement program based in seven remote and regional schools in Western Australia, where it uses netball and other incentives to engage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander girls in their education, while promoting their health and wellbeing. Shooting Stars evaluates the efficacy of its services through collation of attendance data, participant case studies, and yarning circles. The methods used in the yarning circles research were developed over 18 months in collaboration with Shooting Stars participants, localized Shooting Stars steering committees, and Shooting Stars staff. This paper presents the evaluation protocols for the Shooting Stars program, focusing on the yarning circles’ methods in order to provide a framework or model of Indigenous evaluation methods for others working within this space.
Physical Activity and Sports—Real Health Benefits: A Review with Insight into the Public Health of Sweden, Christer Malm, Johan Jakobsson, Andreas Isaksson, sports, Volume 7(5), 127, (May 2019). Positive effects from sports are achieved primarily through physical activity, but secondary effects bring health benefits such as psychosocial and personal development and less alcohol consumption. This narrative review summarizes research and presents health-related data from Swedish authorities. Aerobic physical activity has been shown to benefit weight maintenance after prior weight loss, reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome, normalize blood lipids, and help with cancer/cancer-related side effects (Table 2 and Table 3), while effects on chronic pain are not as clear. Muscle-strengthening physical activity has, in contrast to aerobic exercise, been shown to reduce muscle atrophy, risk of falling, and osteoporosis in the elderly. Among the elderly, both men and women adapt positively to strength training. Strength training also prevents obesity, enhances cognitive performance if done alongside aerobic exercise, counteracts the development of neurodegenerative diseases, reduces the risk of metabolic syndrome, counteracts cancer/cancer-related side effects, reduces pain and disability in joint diseases, and enhances bone density.
Girls on the Run: Impact of a Physical Activity Youth Development: Program on Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes, Maureen Weiss, Lindsay Kipp, Alison Phillips Reichter, et al., Pediatric Exercise Science, Volume 31, pp.330-340, (2019). Girls on the Run is an after-school physical activity-based positive youth development program designed to enhance girls’ social, psychological, and physical development. We evaluated the effectiveness of the program by employing a longitudinal design and mixed methods. Girls (N = 203; aged 8–11 y) completed survey measures of positive youth development constructs (competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring), physical activity, and sedentary behavior prior to, at the end of, and 3 months after the season. Subsamples of girls, coaches, caregivers, and school personnel participated in focus groups. Coaches completed information about their team’s community impact project and number of girls who completed the season-ending 5k. The full sample improved in confidence and connection, whereas girls who started below the preseason average showed the greatest gains from preseason to postseason on all measures, and scores were maintained or continued to improve at follow-up. All stakeholders in focus groups corroborated evidence of season-long improvement in social and emotional behaviors and health outcomes. Involvement in the community impact project contributed to girls’ growth in character and empathy skills. Findings provide empirical evidence that Girls on the Run is effective in promoting positive youth development, including season-long and lasting change in competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and physical activity, especially among girls who exhibited lower preseason scores than their peers.
The Effect of Sport on the Level of Positivity and Well-Being in Adolescents Engaged in Sport Regularly, Yakup Bakir, Murat Kangalgil, Journal of Education and Training Studies, Volume 5(11), pp.98-104, (2017). Sport, an element of universal culture, is a prominent tool that brings individuals with different languages, races and religions together. Sport is generally defined as activities that positively affect the psychological health of people and bring about social and moral benefits besides its physical benefits. Mental well-being is defined as the individual's awareness of their own abilities, their abilities to overcome stress in life, being productive and useful in business life and contributing to community via the their ability (WHO, 2004). Positivity is defined as the main determinant of subjective well-being and is expressed as a tendency to evaluate all aspects of life that is already good. This study aimed to investigate whether sport is effective on mental well-being and positivity. The study group is composed by forming 3 groups of 20 students from 10th grade students. The groups were equalled in terms of some variables like age, gender, sports background etc. The groups were called as the sports activities group, social activities group and the control group. While the participants in the experimental group were engaged in regular and scheduled sports activities including training and contests, the participants in the social activities group engaged in regular social activities. The participants in the control group led their routine lives. After a period of 10 weeks, the tests given at the beginning of the study were administrated again, and test scores of the students in all three groups were compared. According to the results, while there was an increase in the mental well-being scores of the sports activity and social activity groups, there was a decrease in the mental well-being scores of the control group. In the study, when the positivity and mental well-being scores of the students in all three groups according to gender were compared, the difference between the groups was not found significant.
Physical activity in European adolescents and associations with anxiety, depression and well-being, Elaine McMahon, Paul Corcoran, Grace O’Regan, et al., European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Volume 26, pp.111–122, (2017). In this cross-sectional study, physical activity, sport participation and associations with well-being, anxiety and depressive symptoms were examined in a large representative sample of European adolescents. A school-based survey was completed by 11,110 adolescents from ten European countries who took part in the SEYLE (Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe) study. The questionnaire included items assessing physical activity, sport participation and validated instruments assessing well-being (WHO-5), depressive symptoms (BDI-II) and anxiety (SAS). Multi-level mixed effects linear regression was used to examine associations between physical activity/sport participation and mental health measures. A minority of the sample (17.9 % of boys and 10.7 % of girls) reported sufficient activity based on WHO guidelines (60 min + daily). The mean number of days of at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous activity in the past 2 weeks was 7.5 ± 4.4 among boys and 5.9 days ± 4.3 among girls. Frequency of activity was positively correlated with well-being and negatively correlated with both anxiety and depressive symptoms, up to a threshold of moderate frequency of activity. In a multi-level mixed effects model more frequent physical activity and participation in sport were both found to independently contribute to greater well-being and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms in both sexes. Increasing activity levels and sports participation among the least active young people should be a target of community and school-based interventions to promote well-being. There does not appear to be an additional benefit to mental health associated with meeting the WHO-recommended levels of activity.
Women, Sports, and Development: Does It Pay to Let Girls Play? Barbara Kotschwar, Peterson Institute for International Economics, Policy Briefs 14-8, (March 2014). This Policy Brief reviews the evidence that young women and youth in general who participate in sports are more likely to attain educational success and specifically that girls who play sports do better in school, suffer fewer health problems, achieve more in areas dominated by men, such as science, and hold better jobs as adults. The trend is especially striking among girls from minority groups, who appear to experience greater social and economic mobility, more confidence, and even more personal safety if they have participated in sports. While much of the evidence on girls’ sports participation is preliminary or anecdotal, it is clear that girls benefit from engaging in sports and net the same positive gains available to boys who do so. Bridging the gap in girls’ sports participation will expedite and enhance countries’ gender equity gains.
The Effects of a Community and School Sport-Based Program on Urban Indigenous Adolescents’ Life Skills and Physical Activity Levels: The SCP Case Study, Louisa Peralta, Donna O’Connor, Wayne Cotton, et al., Health, Volume 6(18), (2014). The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a community and school sport program (SCP) on Indigenous adolescents’ life skills and physical activity levels within program sessions. A secondary aim was to determine the acceptability of the SCP. The objective of the SCP is to encourage improved educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students using sport. Such outcomes may include an increase in school attendance, strengthened engagement with school, improved attitudes to schooling and improved achievement in learning. A recent evaluation of these outcomes found that the SCP is meeting these objectives with girls reporting a 11.5% increase and boys reporting a 15.4% increase in attendance since joining the SCP, more than 90% reporting a positive attitude towards school, 90% of lower secondary students maintaining or improving literacy levels and 92% maintaining or improving numeracy understanding. This study highlights the need for partnerships between Indigenous community organisations and schools to design sport-based programs to promote Indigenous adolescents’ MVPA.
Participation in Vigorous Sports, Not Moderate Sports, Is Positively Associated With Cardiorespiratory Fitness Among Adolescent Girls, Daniel R. Taber, Charlotte Pratt, Eileen Y. Charneco, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 11(3), pp.596-603, (2014). There is controversy regarding whether moderately-intense sports can improve physical fitness, which declines throughout adolescence among girls. The objective was to estimate the association between moderate and vigorous sports participation and cardiorespiratory fitness in a racially diverse sample of adolescent girls. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using a modified physical work capacity test in 1029 eighth-grade girls participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls. Girls reported sports in which they participated in the last year on an organized activity questionnaire. Using general linear mixed models, the study regressed absolute and relative fitness on the number of vigorous and moderate sports in which girls participated, race/ethnicity, age, treatment group, fat mass, fat-free mass, and an interaction between race and fat-free mass. The number of vigorous sports in which girls participated was positively associated with absolute fitness and relative fitness. Associations were reduced, but not eliminated, after controlling for MET-weighted MVPA. Participation in moderate sports was not associated with either fitness measure. The authors conclude that vigorous sports participation is positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness. Future longitudinal research should analyze whether promoting vigorous sports at an early age can prevent age-related declines in cardiorespiratory fitness among adolescent girls.
A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport, Rochelle Eime, Janet Young, Jack Harvey, et al., International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, Volume 10, Article 98, (August 2013). This paper first presents the results of a systematic review of the psychological and social health benefits of participation in sport by children and adolescents. A total of 3668 publications were initially identified, of which 30 met the selection criteria. There were many different psychological and social health benefits reported, with the most commonly being improved self-esteem, social interaction followed by fewer depressive symptoms. Sport may be associated with improved psychosocial health above and beyond improvements attributable to participation in PA. Specifically, team sport seems to be associated with improved health outcomes compared to individual activities, due to the social nature of the participation. For girls some of the benefits identified in the literature included: sport club activities had a positive influence on the development of self-esteem; one study found that the relationship between achievement and self-esteem was partially mediated by girls’ perceptions of competence and interest in team sport, and mastery in team sport contributed to global self-esteem development; A US study in which high school students were interviewed at two time points one year apart, showed that for females, but not for males, team sport involvement was protective against depressed mood state associated with poor school performance.
An Evaluation of the Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund, Richardson E and Papathomas A, Loughborough University, (2013). This report evaluates the social and personal development impact of the International Tennis Federation’s (ITF) Wheelchair Tennis Development Fund (WTDF). This is one of the first scientific studies of its kind to investigate how participation in wheelchair tennis through this program affects the lives of those individuals involved. The program operates in 39 countries. The study found that involvement in wheelchair tennis led to numerous psychological and social benefits, which transferred into other domains of life. The psychological benefits included increased self-confidence and empowerment (particularly for women), increased opportunities for independence, and improved perceptions of persons with a disability. The program also created opportunities, such as sports scholarships for competitors and career pathways in coaching. Wheelchair tennis was also shown to have the potential to improve an individual’s self-perception. “I had a negative mentality” said one participant, “But, as time goes, I grow up and I realise that I don’t have to be ashamed of myself or who I am”. Players involved in the WTDF experience reported an improved social life, both through making friends and as a result of greater self-confidence. Participants felt wanted, supported, and worthy of someone else’s time. The program also helps to challenge the view society takes on disability.

Careers and education

Sport participation can have a positive relationship to success in academic or professional pursuits.

Impact

Careers and education

While it is difficult to determine whether success in academic or professional pursuits is directly related to sport participation, research and analysis suggests that there is a relationship between the two. ^{14, 24, 28, 29, 49}

Some benefits or skills identified as being fostered by sport participation that can benefit both education and career development include self-awareness, belief and confidence, teamwork, leadership, work ethics and standards, passion, performance under pressure, and learning to both win and lose (and to bounce back from failure). ^{12, 13, 23, 24, 26}

Education and academic achievement

Higher education attainment can help to achieve long term health and wellbeing through various mechanisms, including better employment (and therefore economic outcomes), and developing positive psychosocial behaviours and resources. ^{3, 17, 28}

Several research projects have identified the role that sport can play in helping to achieve better educational outcomes:

A 2024 analysis of data from the ‘Longitudinal study of Australian children’ found that children who continued sport participation into adolescence had higher academic performance across a range of outcomes, although there were differences between individual and team sport participants. Team sport participants performed better on attention and working memory, had fewer days absent without permission, and were more likely to be awarded the HSC/equivalent. While individual sport participants reported higher NAPLAN literacy results and higher academic performance at the end of school (ATAR). ²⁸
A 2022 systematic review concluded that although many studies on the impact of sport participation for children and adolescent’s academic performance was relatively low-quality, it still suggested that 1-2 hours per week of sport participation, was beneficial for academic performance when compared to no sport or playing sport for 3 or more hours per week. Sport participation during school hours appeared to be more beneficial, potentially due to having a more immediate effect on individual’s attention and time on task, that can help improve academic learning and performance. ⁵⁰
A 2018 evaluation of an after-school triathlon program for at-risk girls aged 11 to 14 years in the United States indicated that after school community and family inclusive programs with structured fitness components (e.g. sport) increased confidence, self-determination, and academic achievement though social support structures. ²¹
A 2014 study in the United States found a positive association between female and male advanced placement (AP) enrolment rates and interscholastic sport participation, especially in math, science, foreign language, and overall AP enrolment. The findings suggested that these benefits were stronger for female than male students. ²⁹
A 2011 evaluation of the Sporting Chance Program (SCP) that aimed to encourage improved educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (boys and girls) using sport and recreation found similar outcomes for both genders. Some specific outcomes for girls included a 12.5% increase in self-reported attendance at school since joining the academy. One girls’ Academy reported that 88% of girls involved with the project had maintained or improved their academic and behavioural performances at school. Levels of literacy and numeracy were also also maintained or improved in around 90% of lower secondary students in this Academy. ⁶

To help children and young people have the best long-term benefits from sport we need to ensure that sport in schools is valued for the benefits it can provide – for academic, health, social and mental wellbeing – and that sporting activities and environments provide positive experiences for all. ^{3, 17, 27, 28, 50}

Career and leadership development

Some studies have also looked at the role that sport participation, either current or during different periods of development (e.g. adolescence or university), can have on female career and leadership development. ²⁷

Studies looking at the value hiring managers attribute to playing and/or volunteering in sport when determining whether to interview job applicants have found that both are perceived favourably, potentially as or more favourably than internship experience. ^{51, 52}
A 2018 HSBC survey of 684 Australian women who currently played team sports found that 98% of women involved in the survey agreed that playing team sports had increased their professional confidence and contributed to a successful career. The top five skills developed through sport that were most beneficial to their careers were teamwork (23%); mental strength (13%); confidence (12%); time management (8%); and ambition (8%). ²⁰
Ernst & Young (EY), a global consulting firm has conducted a series of surveys and studies on the impact of sport participation on women’s leadership and career success, primarily in the United States. Some key findings include:
- Female executives surveyed felt that playing sport fostered skills and attitudes that contributed to their success, such as strong work ethic, determination, team building, and problem solving. ^{24, 36}
- 94% of female executives had a background in sport. 55% of executive-level female respondents participated at university levels (compared to 39% of other female managers). ²⁶
- 80% of women Fortune 500 executives had played competitive sports. ⁴⁹
- 74% of all executives surveyed believed playing sports helps a woman progress faster. ^{26, 49}
- 61% of the women executives who responded to the survey believed playing sports contributed positively to their career success and advancement. ⁴⁹
- 76% of women surveyed agreed that adopting behaviours and techniques from sport in the corporate environment can be an effective way of improving the performance of teams. ⁵³
- Women who had been athletes in high school generally earned more when they entered the workforce. The annual wages of former athletes were on average about 7% higher than those of non-athletes. ²⁶

Some research and analysis suggest that many of the written and unwritten ‘rules’ of business have traditionally been absorbed by boys and men through participating in (often male-dominated) sport. This may mean that women who play sport can also have an advantage in learning the structures and skills that can benefit them in other male-dominated organisations outside of sport. ^{3, 12, 14, 53}

Organisations – within and outside of sport – who wish to increase the number of female leaders can consider partnering with sports organisations and programs (e.g. at universities) to identify high-potential candidates, and/or develop policies to identify and recruit athletes at all stages of their careers. ^{36, 54}

Why a female athlete should be your next leader, Ernst & Young (EY) Global, (23 September 2020). Research conducted over the last three years as part of EY’s Women Athletes Business Network shows the role that sport plays at every stage of professional women’s lives — from girls to rising leaders to C-suite executives. With their problem-solving skills and team-building experiences, women who have played sport are uniquely positioned to lead in the corporate world. A UN report points out that “the participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains.” Sport backgrounds can also help C-suite leaders succeed. When they enter the boardroom, women athletes have a unique advantage. In addition to the strong work ethic, determination and team spirit fostered by their time on the playing field, they thrive on competition, which C-suite women who were polled in EY/espnW research noted was a bigger factor in their careers than did more junior women. Business leaders need to understand the direct relationship between athletics and careers and to partner with the athletic departments of universities to identify high-potential candidates, much as they do with finance, accounting or business departments. Companies must also develop policies specifically targeted toward identifying and recruiting athletes early on.
Why Equitable Opportunity Matters: What a Life in Sport Provides Women and Girls Beyond the Game, Mim Haigh, Athlete Assessments, (2020). While girls’ and women’s opportunities to participate in sport have improved following the passage of Title IX in the United States, boys and men continue to be involved in sport substantially more than their female counterparts, and this gap only grows as they get older. Indeed, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations (2018-2019) boys have 1.13 million more opportunities to play sports than girls each year. The narrative extends well beyond the competition arena with the research clearly stating that from C-suite executives or developing leaders, to those entering the workforce, college, or school, with their practiced problem-solving abilities, leadership, and team building capabilities, a background in sport uniquely positions women and girls for success in any non-sporting endeavor. Some benefits or skills identified as being fostered by sport participation include Self-awareness, Self-belief and Self-confidence, Teamwork, Leadership, Driving standards, Discretionary effort, Performance under pressure, and Winning and losing.
How can winning on the playing field prepare you for success in the boardroom? Janelle Sasaki, EY Global, (6 March 2020). A global study (Why female athletes make winning entrepreneurs) of male and female C-Suite executives conducted by EY and espnW between 2013 and 2016 found an undeniable correlation between athletic and business success:
- 94% of women executives have a background in sport, and over half participated at university levels
- 80% of women Fortune 500 executives had played competitive sports
- 74% of all executives believed playing sports helps a woman progress faster
- 61% of the women executives who responded believed playing sports contributed positively to their career success and advancement
Five Ways Men Can Improve Gender Diversity at Work, Matt Krentz, Olivier Wierzba, Katie Abouzahr, et al., BCG, (10 October 2017). Women are underrepresented in many global companies, particularly among senior leadership teams—and companies are missing out on opportunities as a result. A large and growing body of research shows that organizations with greater numbers of women, especially in leadership roles, perform better. For example, a 2016 Peterson Institute for International Economics study of some 22,000 global companies found that as companies increased the number of women among board members and senior leaders, their profit margins increased as well. Diverse teams bring diverse perspectives to a company, improving both problem solving and resiliency and making the organization more innovative and adaptable to change.
Benefits – Why Sports Participation for Girls and Women, Women’s Sports Foundation, (30 August 2016). Sport has been one of the most important socio-cultural learning experiences for boys and men for many years. Those same benefits should be afforded our daughters. It is important for all of us to know that: High school girls who play sports are less likely to be involved in an unintended pregnancy; more likely to get better grades in school and more likely to graduate than girls who do not play sports; Girls and women who play sports have higher levels of confidence and self-esteem and lower levels of depression; Girls and women who play sports have a more positive body image and experience higher states of psychological well-being than girls and women who do not play sports. Sport is where boys have traditionally learned about teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviors—critical skills necessary for success in the workplace. In an economic environment where the quality of our children’s lives will be dependent on two-income families, our daughters cannot be less prepared for the highly competitive workplace than our sons. It is no accident that 80% of the female executives at Fortune 500 companies identified themselves as former “tomboys”—having played sports. Right now, however, women who don’t know the written and unwritten rules of sport are at a disadvantage in understanding business models of organization based on sport. How important is it that our daughters learn the same rules as our sons? It’s critical.
Lessons in women’s leadership from lacrosse and basketball, Beth A. Brooke-Marciniak, EY/World Economic Forum, (4 March 2015). A background in sport can improve a woman's leadership potential and help her land a job, according to women executives surveyed by the EY Women Athletes Business Network and espnW. Here are three important areas that business leaders, national and local governments and parents can focus on to help foster attitudes, programmes and communities that truly value the unique role of sports in creating women leaders: Support girls’ and women’s sports programmes from the ground up; Drive understanding of why sports matter for girls and women; Identify athletes in the talent pipeline.
Ernst & Young Studies The Connection Between Female Executives And Sports, Alana Glass, Forbes, (24 June 2013). Ernst & Young commissioned a global online survey to investigate the important role of sports in the development of female executive in connection with its Women Athletes Global Leadership Network. The study found that 90% of the women surveyed had played sports either at primary and secondary school, or during university or other tertiary education, with this proportion rising to 96% among C-suite women. Moreover, in comparing C-level (executive-level) female respondents to other female managers, far more had participated in sports at a higher level. The respondents included 821 senior managers and executives (40% female, 60% male) who work at companies with annual revenues in excess of US$250 million. Together they represented 15 different countries (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Africa, United Kingdom, and United States) and a wide range of industries. Additional research findings include:
- 90% of women agree that teams are the best way to address increasingly complex business problems, while 82% agree that improving their organization’s ability to develop and manage teams will be essential for future competitiveness.
- When comparing C-level female respondents to other female managers, a far higher proportion had participated in sports at a higher level, especially at university or as a working adult. For example, nearly seven in ten (67%) women now occupying a C-level position had participated in sports as a working adult, compared with 55% of other female managers, while 55% of the C-suite women had played sports at a university level, compared with 39% of other female managers.
- More than three-quarters, or 76%, of women agree that adopting behaviors and techniques from sport in the corporate environment can be an effective way of improving the performance of teams.

Shooting Stars, an initiative of Glass Jar Australia, empowers Aboriginal girls and women across Western and South Australia to make informed choices about their education and employment journey, helping them shoot for the stars. Based in host schools, our program combines advocacy and support, engagement activities, rewards, and health and wellbeing sessions to strengthen participants' confidence, cultural identity, and positive attitudes, while promoting their health and wellbeing. Participants are engaged with different sports, arts, and fun games at school and outside of school. The program operates with a minimum target of 80% attendance at school for our Indigenous girls, with a goal to increasing this to over 90%.

Evaluation of Sport NZ Ihi Aotearoa’s National Policy for Gender Equity in Governance, Dr Jo Cribb, Sport NZ, (September 2022). There is a well-accepted rationale for why women need to be included in leadership roles, including governance roles. Women bring new ideas and perspectives to decision-making that ensure better decisions are made. They can provide insights into the experiences of women and girls. If women are underrepresented, women’s views are unlikely to be adequately addressed. More broadly, the literature on board diversity concludes that having women appointed to boards ensures board recruitment is based on the whole pool, not just parts of it. Boards with more women attract more women employees and create policies and practices that encourage other women within the organisations and play, active recreation and sport sector (the sector). Organisations with more women on boards are more profitable and resilient. International, national and local organisations with women well represented at governance level have been shown to make better decisions because they ensure the voices of all sport participants are included. With more women on sports boards, more gender issues are raised more often, and more boards act on gender inequality issues. Boards with three or more women are also more inclined to consider non-financial performance measures and stakeholder satisfaction, both of which are essential for the survival of sport organisations. As of December 2021, 65 out of 66 qualifying partners of Sport NZ Ihi Aotearoa (Sport NZ), achieved a gender balance on their boards of 40 percent or more self-identified women. This qualitative evaluation of the implementation of the policy found that building a pool of board-ready women, focusing on supporting boards with their recruitment processes, and supporting chairs were key to success. To achieve the quota, the attitudes and behaviours of some incumbent board members needed to be challenged, constitutions and deeds modernised, and women needed to be encouraged to apply. The results of having more women on the qualifying boards have been an overall improvement in the quality of governance and board dynamics, more conversations about women and girls at the board table, more women in chair roles and more consideration of wider diversity opportunities, especially biculturalism.
Chasing Equity: The Triumphs, Challenges, and Opportunities in Sports for Girls and Women, Women's Sports Foundation, (January 2020). There are distinct and vast benefits to girls’ participation in sport and physical activity at all levels of sport participation from grassroots to professional sport and beyond. Girls and women reap significant benefits from sport participation that are both immediate and long-term. Girls who do not participate in sport are less content with their lives than female sport participants. Sport involvement enhances girls’ quality of life as female athletes often benefit more from sport participation than male athletes. Sport is a favorable domain to support the fostering of leadership skills in girls. Main benefits discussed are physical, social, emotional, and academic.
Why female athletes make winning entrepreneurs, EY and espnW, (2017). is there something about sport that primes women for the highstakes world of entrepreneurship? What are the transferable attitudes and behaviors that competitive sport instills? And, more broadly, what can women in the workforce at all levels learn from women who have leapt from the field of play to the founder’s chair? Our discussions with 22 entrepreneurs identified five winning strategies they developed as athletes that give them an edge in launching and scaling their own enterprises: Confidence — in their abilities, even during rough patches; Single-mindedness — an unwavering focus on the challenges ahead; Passion — the determination to succeed in everything they do; Leadership — the ability to lead and inspire a team of likeminded individuals; Resilience — the ability to take failure as “feedback” that will only make them stronger. In this report, we explore each of these attributes and suggest how they can be translated into behaviors that women can adopt to help them start, lead and grow their own companies.
Her Life Depends On It III: Sport, Physical Activity, and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls and Women, Staurowsky, E. J., DeSousa, M. J., Miller, K. E., et al., Women’s Sports Foundation, (May 2015). A comprehensive report that reviews existing and emerging research on the links between participation in sport and physical activity and the health and wellbeing of American girls and women. As with the previous editions in 2004 and 2009, this study also confirms that physical activity and sport provides the critical foundation, in no small part, that allows girls and women to lead healthy, strong, and fulfilled lives. The report’s contents reflect the review of 1,500 studies, nearly 400 covered since the previous edition. While the report’s focus continues to be on U.S. girls and women, selected research findings that offer perspective regarding girls and women worldwide is also referenced in order to provide some perspective and context. The research compiled in this updated report strongly suggests that sport and physical activity provide conditions that help to ensure girls’ health and wellbeing (physical, social, psychological, and academic). The full report offers expansive documentation on the impact sport and physical activity has in the lives of girls and women. In this report, we also highlight the emerging areas of research that focus on protecting the health of female athletes and offer insights into the steps that need to be taken to ensure their health and safety. Some important selected findings identified include:
- Over the past few decades, several major reviews of the empirical literature have typically found that participation in sports is positively associated with many different educational outcomes. In general, sports participation has been shown to improve both girls’ and boys’ academic outcomes, with some studies suggesting that girls may gain an additional academic advantage due to their involvement in sports when compared to boys.
- Contemporary studies that have found that female athletes are most likely to show gains in male-dominated academic areas, such as math and science, have used a combination of functionalist and critical feminist theories to interpret why females in sport perform better academically in male dominated educational domains. These studies argued that participating in sport, a “male-dominated” domain, not only teaches female athletes skills and values necessary for success in academics, but also provides a social environment that challenges gender stereotypes about female limitations in other primarily “masculine domains” such as math and science. In other words, these studies theorize that sports participation provides a unique cultural environment for female athletes to challenge stereotypical assumptions about femininity (e.g., men are innately better at math than women).
- Previous athletic participation has been found to be an asset and valued quality among global business leaders. According to a 2013 study issued by Ernst & Young, a corporation that does business around the world, women at the executive level were found to have participated in university sport more frequently than women who were in manager positions (55% to 39%). The Ernst & Young (2013) study also found that more than 75% of women agree that adopting behaviors and techniques from sport in the corporate environment can be an effective way of improving the performance of work teams, which is a high management priority.
Where will you find your next leader? EY and espnW, (2015). explore how sport advances women at every level. Research conducted over the last three years as part of EY’s Women Athletes Business Network shows the role that sport plays at every stage of professional women’s lives — from girls to rising leaders to C-suite executives. With their problem-solving skills and team-building experiences, women who have played sport are uniquely positioned to lead in the corporate world. The value of physical activity extends far beyond the playing field.
- Besides good health, the benefits of sport include social, emotional and moral competencies, as well as resilience, a sense of teamwork and the ability to connect with a community.
- A United Nations report points out that “the participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains.”
- Women who have been athletes in high school generally earn more when they enter the workforce, according to research by Betsey Stevenson, former Chief Economist at the U.S. Department of Labor and now a professor of public policy at the University of Michigan. The annual wages of former athletes are on average about 7% higher than those of non-athletes, according to a Peterson Institute Policy Brief commissioned by EY.
- Seventy-four percent of respondents say a sport background can help accelerate a woman’s career, and 61% believe sporting involvement has contributed to their own career success. The survey linked women in senior management positions to experience with sport, finding that 94% of women in the C-suite played sport, 52% at a university level (39% of women at other management levels). Eighty percent of Fortune 500 female executives have played sport in their earlier years. 77% of C-suite women think that women who played sport make good employees, with cadidates with a sport background thought to be determined, have strong work ethic, and be team players.
- In addition to the strong work ethic, determination and team spirit fostered by their time on the playing field, they thrive on competition, which C-suite women who were polled in EY/espnW research noted was a bigger factor in their careers than did more junior women.
- A new study by the Peterson Institute for International Economics tracked women’s athletic participation and success at the Summer Olympic Games between Rome 1960 and London 2012. The researchers found that countries where women had even slightly more education and greater participation in the labor force won more medals in women’s Olympic events. This was the case even for modestly sized delegations from small or poor countries. The conditions that determine women’s athletic achievement are different from those that govern men’s success in sports, researchers found. Factors such as better education, more labor force participation, good health and a more urbanized population correlate with more medals for women in Olympic events.
- Business leaders need to understand the direct relationship between athletics and careers and to partner with the athletic departments of universities to identify high-potential candidates, much as they do with finance, accounting or business departments. Companies must also develop policies specifically targeted toward identifying and recruiting athletes early on.
Evaluation of the Sporting Chance Program, Lonsdale, M., Wilkinson, J., Armstrong, S., et al., Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) for the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, (2011). The objective of the Sporting Chance Program is to encourage improved educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (boys and girls) using sport and recreation. Such outcomes may include an increase in school attendance, strengthened engagement with school and improved attitudes to schooling, improved achievement in learning, increased retention to Year 12 or its vocational equivalent and greater parental and community involvement with the school and students’ schooling. More than 90 per cent of the 1,012 students surveyed and interviewed as part of the evaluation reported a positive attitude toward their schooling, particularly in relation to their attitudes to school, self-identity, sense of pride in being Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and self-efficacy as learners.

Sport Participation for Academic Success: Evidence From the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, Katherine Owen, Bridget Foley, Ben Smith, et al., Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Volume 21(3), pp.238-246, (2024). Education has a positive effect on health across all life stages. High educational attainment improves health through better employment opportunities, improved economic conditions, increased psychosocial resources, and a healthier lifestyle. Unsurprisingly, there is causal evidence that high educational attainment reduces the risk of mortality. For these reasons, identifying the modifiable determinants of children and adolescents’ educational outcomes should be a priority for parents, caregivers, teachers, policy makers, and society. Physical activity positively improves academic performance in children and adolescents. Sport participation is a distinct type of physical activity, and a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of 115 studies found evidence for a positive association between sport participation and academic performance. However, most of the included studies were low-quality and cross-sectional designs. The primary aim of the current study was to identify long-term patterns of sport participation from childhood into adolescence and to examine the association between these patterns and academic outcomes. A secondary aim was to identify patterns of children and adolescents’ participation in team and individual sport and explore the effect of these patterns on academic outcomes. Children who continued sport participation into adolescence had higher academic performance across a broad range of academic outcomes. Individual and team sport appear to be beneficial for different aspects of academic performance. Children who participated in team sport had better performance on attention and working memory, fewer absent days without permission, and were more likely to be awarded the HSC/equivalent. Whereas children who participated in individual sport reported higher NAPLAN literacy results and had a higher academic performance at the end of school (ATAR). Given the decline in sport participation during adolescence, these findings highlight the need to develop or modify educational policies to establish an environment that fosters and promotes sport participation, which in turn could improve academic outcomes. Sensitivity analysis for gender was calculated, but specific results for girls versus boys was not reported in this study.
Collegiate Team Sport Participation and Adult Leadership Development [thesis], Sarah Grai, Southeastern University, FireScholars, (October 2022). This study explored the impact of female collegiate team sport participation on self-perceived leadership development and leadership style. Research was conducted using qualitative methods, interviewing 12 former female collegiate rugby athletes, all no more than 3 years removed from their collegiate rugby experience. The aim was to understand how female collegiate athletes experience the process of leadership development, how participation influences an athlete’s perceived leadership style, the influence of coaches and team roles on their leadership development, and how former female athletes display transformational leadership as adults, if at all. The results of the study confirmed that collegiate rugby played a role in the formation of adult leadership styles, yet important questions remain regarding the process of leadership development within collegiate sport.
Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Katherine Owen, Bridget Foley, Katrina Wilhite, et al., Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume 54(2), pp.299-306, (February 2022). Our aim was to systematically review and combine via meta-analyses evidence of the association between sport participation and academic performance in children and adolescents. From 115 eligible studies, most of which had a high risk of bias (k = 87), we meta-analyzed 298 effect sizes. While gender specific data is not discussed, overall, sport participation had a small positive effect on academic performance. Moderator analyses indicated that sports participation was most beneficial for academic performance when it was at a moderate dose (i.e., 1–2 h·wk−1), compared with no sport or a high dose of sport (3+ h·wk−1). Sports participation during school hours was more beneficial for academic performance compared with sport participation outside school hours. Based on mostly low-quality studies, we found some evidence that sport could positively affect academic performance in children and adolescents. It appears that sport participation of a moderate dose and at school could be used to promote academic performance. However, if this field were to inform policy, high-quality studies are needed that provide insight into the effect of dose and sport characteristics on academic performance.
The role of sports volunteering as a signal in the job application process, Sören Wallrodt, Lutz Thieme, European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 20(3), pp.255-275, (2020). To examine the signaling effect of volunteering activities in CVs, 474 people involved in hiring processes (i.e. hiring managers) participated in this study. Both sports volunteering activities and internship experience were examined as different experimental conditions. Moreover, the subjects were randomly split into different experimental groups and asked to rate the skills and qualifications of a female applicant, and whether they would invite the applicant to an interview and what would be the salary offered upon hiring her for three different jobs. Sports volunteering had a positive effect on hiring managers’ perception of the qualifications of the applicant for all three jobs but affected the outcome of the application differently concerning the likelihood of inviting the applicant to a job interview or the salary that would be offered, but only if the job was closely related to the volunteering activity. The effects of internship experience were marginal.
Does Athletic Participation Signal Employability? An Experimental Analysis of Male and Female Athlete Job Applicants, Brendan Dwyer, Jennifer Gellock, Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, Volume 11, pp.40-64, (2018). College athletes face high expectations to compete on the field and in the classroom. However, the time demands associated with athletics and academics often limit their ability to engage in traditional college experiences. Internships or practical job trainings are one such opportunity unfortunately forgone due to the time constraints of the contemporary college athlete experience. This results in an issue when applying for jobs outside of sport, as direct internship experience positively impacts an individual’s likelihood to be hired into an entry-level position. The current study explored the perceived value of intercollegiate athletic participation compared to and in addition to direct internship experience via four résumé evaluation experiments. Two hundred and thirty five individuals with hiring experience participated; results suggested athletic participation was perceived as at least equally favorable to direct internship experience. However, male athletes without direct internship experience were more likely to receive an interview and received higher unobserved attribute ratings than female athletes with the exact same credentials.
Promoting the Leadership Development of Girls through Physical Education and Sport, Dana Voelker, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, Volume 87(3), pp. 9-15, (2016). Leadership is a powerful life skill that influences the future of our local, national and global communities. Despite the many positive and productive changes observed in the leadership opportunities for women and girls, they remain highly under-represented in positional leadership roles. The leadership development and empowerment of women and girls has become an increasingly popular topic in books, websites and “strong girl” advertisement campaigns. At a grassroots level, physical educators and coaches must attend to these efforts in novel ways, as physical education and sport provide unique opportunities to develop leadership skills. This article discusses recommendations grounded in both the academic literature and professional practice, including: (1) embracing leadership diversity and deconstructing gender stereotyping, (2) building networking and mentorship, and (3) encouraging girls to use their voice and exercise leadership skills. Specific practical suggestions and a vignette are also provided to help physical educators and coaches maximize the leadership development of girls.
Women, Sports, and Development: Does It Pay to Let Girls Play? Barbara Kotschwar, Peterson Institute for International Economics, Policy Briefs 14-8, (March 2014). This Policy Brief reviews the evidence that young women and youth in general who participate in sports are more likely to attain educational success and specifically that girls who play sports do better in school, suffer fewer health problems, achieve more in areas dominated by men, such as science, and hold better jobs as adults. The trend is especially striking among girls from minority groups, who appear to experience greater social and economic mobility, more confidence, and even more personal safety if they have participated in sports. While much of the evidence on girls’ sports participation is preliminary or anecdotal, it is clear that girls benefit from engaging in sports and net the same positive gains available to boys who do so. Bridging the gap in girls’ sports participation will expedite and enhance countries’ gender equity gains.
Gender, Academics, and Interscholastic Sports Participation at the School Level: A Gender-specific Analysis of the Relationship between Interscholastic Sports Participation and AP Enrollment, Philip Veliz, Sohaila Shakib, Sociological Focus, Volume 47(2), pp.101-120, (2014). While literature demonstrates that interscholastic sports participation is associated with positive academic outcomes, this relationship is rarely analyzed at a macro level (the school level). To date, there is no research examining whether increases in schools’ female and male interscholastic sports participation rates are associated with increases in female and male advanced placement (AP) enrollment rates. Using a national sample of 4,644 public high schools during the 2009–2010 school year, the authors test several gender-specific hypotheses linked with the association between schools’ sport participation rates and AP enrollment rates (AP math, AP science, AP foreign language, and overall AP enrollment). The findings reveal that schools’ female and male sports participation rates have a positive association with schools’ female and male AP math, AP science, AP foreign language, and overall AP enrollment rates. Moreover, the findings suggest that females benefit more than males in regard to the positive relationship between interscholastic sports and AP enrollment.

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