Major sporting event impact and legacy
COMMUNITY & SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT
Major sporting events can have a variety of positive impacts for individuals, communities and the economy at national, state, and local levels.
Events, and successful athletes and teams, can help to bring communities together, encourage people to participate as players and volunteers, and boost economic activity. While direct effects may be short term, they can help to provide a catalyst for ongoing development and engagement.
Engaging the community
Successful events and athletic performances can bring together a wide range of societal groups even those who are not generally interested in sports.
Engaging the community
Several research projects worldwide have examined the ways in which the success of staging major sporting events and/or successful athletic performances on the international stage can affect the perceived happiness or wellbeing of different segments of the community.
These events and performances, particularly when widely broadcast through media channels and commentary, can bring together a wide range of societal groups, even those who are not generally interested in sports. Some key findings from the research include:
- In general individuals with lower educational levels; lower income; black, Indigenous, or migrant backgrounds; and older respondents are more likely to feel pride and happiness from the achievements of elite athletes in international competitions. 1,2,3,4
- Australian research also showed that these groups were more likely to spend more time participating in sport as a result of hosting a major sporting event (2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games). But older people, women, and locals were more likely to gain a positive attitude (pride). 3
- Although it is often assumed that men are more likely to be interested in, and benefit from, sport several studies found that women were more likely to report increased happiness/wellbeing, and more likely to believe that high performance sport brings communities together. 1,2,3
These types of research provide evidence that funding major sporting events can have a positive effect on other policy areas, including social inclusion, through community pride, inspiration and the 'feel good' factor. 5 However, the effect is generally not sustained, so it is important to take advantage of it when it occurs. 6,7
Resources and reading
- LA28 launches PlayLA youth sports programme, International Olympic Committee, (9 November 2021). The initiative is made possible by the LA28 Olympic and Paralympic Games Organising Committee and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which are investing USD 160 million to make sport more accessible to kids across Los Angeles ahead of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2028. This initiative is the single largest commitment to youth sports development in California. For more information visit LAParks.org/PlayLA.
- Invictus Australia launches to continue the legacy of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Invictus Australia, (28 October 2021). Australia has achieved a world first with the launch today of Invictus Australia. Invictus Australia will be at the forefront of delivering sport recovery programs and services to improve the health and wellbeing of military veterans and their families, using sport as the primary vehicle. Invictus Australia is the legacy of the highly acclaimed Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Today marks the third anniversary of the closing of those Games. Invictus Australia – previously known as Veteran Sport Australia – has signed a world first agreement with the international Invictus Games Foundation to continue to use the Invictus brand in Australia, with the primary aim of extending support and the power of the Invictus movement beyond the Games. Through collaboration with sport, community and veteran organisations, Invictus Australia will deliver more opportunities for veterans and their families to engage in sport from grassroots participation through to international competition.
- Redefining legacy: How Brock University is maximizing impact from the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Julie Stevens and Sydney Millar, SIRCUIT, (19 April 2021). When we think of legacies from major games, often we think of new facilities, increased engagement in sport and physical activity, or heightened feelings of national pride. As a key partner in the Niagara 2022 Canada Summer Games, Brock University took an additional approach, leveraging the Games to invest in research, build curricular connections, and enhance community engagement.
- £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019. Other findings from the research included:
- Physical wellbeing – 160,000 British women were inspired by the event to start playing netball or play netball more while 60% of UK spectators surveyed during the event reported feeling inspired to increase their participation in sport or active recreation as a result of attending the event.
- Mental wellbeing – 68% of UK spectators felt happier than normal when attending the event, and a similar proportion had a sense of doing something worthwhile. In addition, 1.35m GB adults felt happier than normal because of their interaction with the event.
- Individual development – 51% of all GB adults who interacted with the event (and 64% of UK female spectators) acquired more knowledge about netball while 46% of UK female spectators felt more confident about their ability to take part in sport and active recreation.
- Social and community development – 41% of Britons, equivalent to 20.72m of the national population, reported feeling proud about England hosting the Netball World Cup. Among fans from Liverpool, 97% agreed that they felt proud that Liverpool hosted the tournament.
- Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
- It is estimated that competitors, family and friends, volunteers, and the general public spent approximately $5.4 million during their stay in NSW and 94% of this expenditure was in Sydney. The total organising, planning and tourism contribution of the Games is estimated at $29.7 million in value added and supported 211 FTE employees in the NSW economy.
- In the five major Australian capital cities alone, around four million people viewed the ABC coverage between 20–27 October while 105,000 attended the Games in person.
- Invictus Australia FAQ: what were the outcomes of Invictus Games Sydney 2018? Invictus Australia, (accessed 1 November 2021). The Games were attended by over 1,000 family and friends of competitors, were supported by over 1200 volunteers, attracted 105,000 spectators and reached 27.5 million people across the globe. At the time of the announcement research indicated that 61% of Australians were familiar with the Invictus Games. By the time the first competitor arrived in Sydney in October 2018, that figure had risen to 83 per cent as Australians of all ages and cultural backgrounds joined with us to embrace our Defence community, and to be inspired by their resilience and their unconquered spirit. The end of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018 marked a new beginning for our wounded, injured and ill serving and former serving military personnel. We inspired the wider community to respect and embrace those who have served their country and encouraged active and connected lifestyles through programs targeting sport and mental wellbeing. We educated the community to realise the valuable contribution our veterans can make in civilian life. The games won the hearts and minds of the nation with research showing seven of every ten adults now wants to play an active role in supporting our veterans. Research conducted following the games showed that 75 per cent of Australian want to do more to help Australian veterans.
- So much more to the Commonwealth Games than medals, Kate Palmer, CEO, Australian Sports Commission, (5 April 2018). The Australian Sports Commission (ASC) and the AIS invest more than $100 million a year in high performance sport and, justifiably, we must quantify the return on that investment. According to SMI Insights Data, 80 per cent of Australians believe our athlete representatives instil pride and contribute towards the national identity, while 75 per cent think Australians are respected on the international stage.
- Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games: Our legacy, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (July 2022). Highlights from the publication include:
- 40,000 new jobs and volunteering opportunities including the 14,000 strong ‘Commonwealth Collective’ of Games-time volunteers.
- The first Commonwealth Games to incorporate, measure and evidence the Social Value impacts and benefits of hosting the Games, offering a model to future host cities with £40 million of Social Value delivered so far.
- Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key social benefits and costs identified were:
- Hosting the Games has catalysed regeneration and transformation of areas across the city and wider region – as seen in the reclamation of a former 146 hectare derelict site in East Manchester. It saw investment in sports, leisure and entertainment facilities, creating many thousands of jobs. House prices improved remarkably between pre and post Games position compared to Manchester and the wider region. £400 million was invested into new homes and communities.
- Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key impact and legacy outcomes relating to inclusion:
- World-first commitment to delivery legacy outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples; first-time gender equality in medal events for men and women; Participation in Australia's first bench-marking program designed to measure inclusion of LGBTI people in sport; accessible venues for people with accessiblity requirements; largest para-sport program in Commowealth Games history - 38 medal events and 300 para-athletes; human rights policy, demonstrating commitment to the UN Guiding Principles; family friendly ticket prices from AU$10 and four free events.
- Invictus Games Sydney 2018 - Game On Down Under Event Review, Australian International Military Games Limited, (2018). This report is a snapshot of the highlights of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Some key numbers included: 491 competitors from 18 nations; 1263 volunteers; 105,000 spectators; 10,000+ primary and secondary students attended; 16 assistance dogs. One of the key objectives for Invictus Games Sydney 2018 was to focus attention on the needs of our veterans as they transition to civilian life. Some key outcomes included:
- RSL NSW, in conjunction with ClubsNSW and the Australian Defence Force (ADF), launching Veteran Sport Australia (VSA). The core principle of VSA is the health and wellbeing of our veterans. This program will encourage them to use the healing power of sport to engage with their community, whether at grassroots level or internationally.
- The Invictus Games Sydney 2018 Education Project, developed and delivered nationally through the NSW Department of Education, provides a valuable educational opportunity centred on inclusivity, mental health, physical health, the unconquered human spirit and resilience. The resources will be available in schools for years to come.
- The Invictus Games Sydney 2018 Outreach program was hosted during the Games and featured a wide array of informative and challenging discussions in the areas of employment, volunteering and health. During the program, we secured from a range of organisations, their commitment to work with veterans on education and training options and to support employment opportunities.
- Between February 2018 and the Opening Ceremony in October, more than 2,200 community events were held. The Community Engagement team presented on average 12 times a week to community organisations.
- Research polls in December 2016 soon after the announcement that Sydney would host the Games; also in June 2018 and November 2018.
- 7 out of 10 Australians want to do their part to support wounded, injured and ill veterans.
- 93% of our volunteers and 90% of our subscribers say that based on their engagement with the Invictus Games the competitors are people they would like to work with.
- A extremely high proportion of both groups (94% volunteers and 91% subscribers) are also now more likely to support initiatives that assist the recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration of servicemen and women than they were before the Invictus Games.
- The Mega-Sporting Event Lifecycle: Embedding Human Rights from Vision to Legacy, Mega-Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights, (April 2018). Mega-sporting events (MSE) are the pinnacle of global sport, but cannot stand apart from their very significant social impacts – both positive and negative. Sporting events can enhance freedoms and celebrate human dignity, but can also amplify discrimination and abuse. It is critical to ensure that the world of sport is in full alignment with the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UN Guiding Principles) and other international human rights and related instruments, principles, and standards. This guide presents the lifecycle of a mega-sporting event, with specific elements of good practice at each stage that those involved in hosting the event should integrate into their planning, delivery and legacy in order to ensure a rights-compliant event.
- The value of sport and active recreation to New Zealanders, Angus and Associates for Sport NZ, (May 2017). This research was designed to update and add to the sector’s understanding of the value that accrues from sport and active recreation and to consider how this value accrues differently to individuals, families, organisations, communities and the country as a whole. It was also designed to consider the many ways in which sport and recreation are said to deliver economic, social and cultural benefit: disaggregating the impacts of High Performance and Community sport where possible, while also helping to clarify the relationship between the two (for example, how achievements at a high performance level motivate participation in community sport, and how community sport creates a pathway to high performance sport). The report highlighted the role high performance sport can have in building and maintaining national identity and pride. Survey results reported that 86% of respondents believe that high performance sport instills both a sense of pride in their country, and contributes to the national identity. Additionally, the report indicates that 70% agreed that 'high performance sport brings communities together'.
- Community Perceptions Survey 2017: Research Report, Essence Communications, [restricted access] (2017). In 2017, as part of the development of the National Sports Plan, the Australian Sports Commission commissioned Essence Communications to conduct a national survey. Through a nationally representative sample (n=3,541) the research sought to establish current perceptions of and the importance of goals for high performance sport, sport participation, cultural, and public health outcomes; expectations of opportunity and success; and current participation in physical activity and sport. Results were reported for key groups (such as gender; age segments; cultural background (CALD, LOTE, ATSI, recent migrants <5 years); income segments; and parents). A market segmentation analysis, based on behaviour and attitudes to physical activity and sport, was also used. The segmentation identified 5 key groups in the population, Club active fans (17%); Non–club active fans (21%), Sidelined advocates (10%), Active ambivalent (31%), and Inactive ambivalent (22%). The two sport ambivalent segments made up about 53% of the population. Some key findings in regards to high performance sport included:
- Reputation and identity — Australians generally believed that sport contributes to our national identity (78%), with a similar percentage saying it is important that Australia is respected on the international sporting stage (78%). A clear majority also believed that high performance sport gives Australia positive international exposure (77%). While representation in international sport instils pride (78%) it is also seen as very important that Australian athletes perform well (74%), with nearly half (45%) expecting Australia to be in the top 10 ten and over half (55%) expecting Australia to be in the top 20.
- Major events — Australian's also believed that it is important for the Government to invest in attracting, securing, and hosting international sporting events (72%). While about 25% believed that these events can inspire Australians to participate in more sport, they are primarily seen as important for Australia's national and international reputation, as well as having community and economic benefits. These benefits include: national pride and identity (34%), putting Australia on the map (25%), attracting tourism to Australia (51%), and promoting Australia generally (44%). Economic benefits are seen as coming from attendance (32%), while promoting community engagement/involvement (including workforce, volunteers, participants, spectators, and supporters) was important to around 26%. Providing facilities to train and compete at and promoting sport were seen as having less impact (23% and 20%) but still relevant.
- Community participation and engagement — in general, the majority of Australians believed that high performance sport benefits Australia. This included encouraging participation in sport itself (69%) and bringing communities together (69%). Additionally, most believed that the facilities/infrastructure for high performance sports/events provide opportunities for everyday Australians (64%). While these views were strongly held by pro–sport segments, agreement remained above 50% even for the ambivalent segments.
- Investment and economic impact — the role of the government in supporting and investing in both community and high performance sport was seen as important by the majority of Australians, whether engaged or not engaged with sport. While this view is less likely in sport ambivalent segments it remained above 50% in all areas tested. Government investment in developing high performance athletes and sport was seen as important by 69% of respondents. And 66% believe that high performance sport makes a valuable contribution to Australia’s economy.
- Evaluating the volunteering infrastructure legacy of the Olympic Games: Sydney 2000 and London 2012, Leonie Lockstone-Binney William, Kirsten Holmes, Richard Shipway, et.al., International Olympic Committee Advanced Research Grant Program 2015/16, (June 2016). Two research phases were conducted. Stage 1 involved a comprehensive review of secondary data on the Sydney and London Olympic and Paralympic Games, and Stage 2 involved 27 interviews with key informants in each host city. The findings reveal limitations with legacy planning for each OCOG. While SOCOG had no specific remit for legacy planning, the voluntary sector led legacy efforts in Australia. In London there was Government-led legacy planning but the failure to engage with the voluntary sector hampered implementation. Recommendations are provided for host cities and the IOC to enable future Olympic Games host cities and countries to leverage from the Games volunteer programmes to generate wider benefits for their communities.
- Where are the Indigenous and First Nations people in sport event volunteering? Can you be what you can’t see? Tracey Dickson, Stirling Sharpe, Simon Darcy, Tourism Recreation Research, (9 September 2022). Mega-sport events (MSE) are frequently cited for their developmental and legacy potentials for host communities, including tourism, sport participation and volunteering. MSE volunteer research has demonstrated the potential to develop volunteers who may contribute to the host community’s social and human capitals. However, little research considers how marginalised groups, such as First Nations or those with disability, may be co-providers of MSE experiences. This paper differs from a dominant quasi-scientific approach to empirical journal articles in that it begins with a reflexive posture drawing upon First nations pedagogy of storytelling. Reflecting upon the volunteers’ social context and drawing upon a dataset of volunteers across 6 MSE in 5 countries (2009–2016), this research explores to what extent First Nations volunteers are considered and included in MSE research and practice, and what differences may exist between First Nations volunteers and others regarding their motivations and future volunteering intentions. The results indicate that significantly more can be done to include First Nations people equitably and respectfully across the design, delivery, and legacy potential of MSE. The results inform a novel framework that provides a map for theory and practice, and thus praxis, for incorporating marginalised groups as full partners across the MSE journey.
- Association between Olympic Games and children’s growth: evidence from China, Guo C, Hu X, Xu C, et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 56(19), pp.1110-1114, (September 2022). To estimate the association between the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games (BOG) and growth of children in China. A total sample of 6 951 children aged 3–10 years were included, among which 3 201 were interviewed in 2014 and 3 750 were interviewed in 2018. The BOG was used as a natural experiment. Exposure to the BOG was established by triple differences measured by age group, survey period and whether child participants were living in BOG areas or not, respectively. Children’s growth was assessed by binary variables of stunting, underweight, overweight and obesity. The difference-in-difference-in-differences (DDD) method was used to estimate the association between the BOG and children’s growth. The BOG was positively associated with healthier growth of children including decreased risks of both undernutrition and overnutrition. More attention should be given to the improvement of health surveillance and services before and after sporting events so that the active role of such mega-events in the lasting well-being of the public can be determined in more detail.
- Social impact of events: advancing insights on social impact scales, Daichi Oshimi, Marijke Taks, Nola Agha, European Sport Management Quarterly, (18 May 2022). Past research has shown that pre-event measures of social impact are higher when worded in reference to a global other such as ‘the event creates new friendships’ instead of a more precise measurement referencing the self such as ‘I create new friendships because of the event’. No research has yet investigated if this holds true both before and after events. Nor has research investigated which social impact scale relates most precisely to event support. This paper addresses both of these gaps. Results suggest that wording social impact items in the first person is a more accurate reflection of reality to capture event impacts, particularly post-event and can better predict peoples’ support for future events.
- Sport legacy impact on ethnic minority groups: the case of London 2012, Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.730-747, (2022). The sport legacy among ethnic minorities has been neglected despite the positive outcomes of active lifestyle and social inclusion. The current research, applying time series analysis, evaluates evidence of sport legacy among four English ethnic minorities regarding the hosting of Olympic Games (London 2012). A short-term association was found between hosting the Games and sport participation rates among ethnic groups, leading more to increasing frequency of engagement for existing participants than to attracting new participants. The results indicate differences among the ethnic groups and gender, showing that females from Asian ethnicities having the highest engagement. Practical implications for the governance of events in the future relate to improving the festival effect of the Games, to encourage social inclusion for ethnic minorities. Our results might encourage policy makers to maintain a sustained effort in the post-event period to capitalise on sport legacy.
- Residents’ perceptions of sporting events: a review of the literature, Balázs Polcsik, Szilvia Perényi, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.748-767, (2022). Increasing attention has been devoted of late to perceptions of sporting events among host city residents. However, a comprehensive literature review that collects and summarizes the content of research in this area lacks scholarly approaches. This study aims to review the literature published between 2000 and 2020 in indexed, peer-reviewed periodicals on perceptions among host city residents. It also analyses the selected 43 papers in the sample with reference to theoretical approaches, methods and findings. It seems that understanding perceived potential social impacts of sporting events in a particular city is essential to the overall success of these events among local communities. Findings from the wide spectrum of studies reviewed can be used in event planning, communication strategies, implementation and reduction of negative impacts, while capitalizing on opportunities. Highlighting key topics and trends in the literature, this analysis also identifies both limitations and possible new research approaches.
- Hosting the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games and wellbeing among Canadian youth, Georgia Teare, Luke Potwarka, Jordan Bakhsh, et al., European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 21(5), pp.636-657, (June 2021). The current study examines the question: what were the associations between hosting the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games, social wellbeing (i.e. sense of belonging), and subjective wellbeing (i.e. life satisfaction) among Canadian youth? Using data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (n > 1,000,000), a time series analysis of youths’ (aged 12–19) reports of perceived sense of belonging to their community and perceived life satisfaction across four time points before and after the Vancouver Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games at the national, provincial, and regional levels was conducted. The number of youths who reported a strong sense of belonging to their community significantly increased in the host region of North Shore after the Games concluded (2011–2012 to 2013–2014). The number of youths who reported a strong sense of belonging to their community and high life satisfaction significantly increased from 2007–2008 (pre-event) to 2009–2010 in the host region of Richmond. This study provides preliminary evidence that mega-sport events might positively affect wellbeing of youth living in regions that house venues for the event. The study also demonstrates the temporary nature of positive social impacts. Suggestions for how to help create situations where positive social impacts are more likely, and to help maintain the wellbeing benefits of mega-sport events for youth populations are offered.
- National pride, sporting success and event hosting: an analysis of intangible effects related to major athletic tournaments, Rasmus K. Storm, Tor Georg Jakobsen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(1), pp.163-178, (2020). Contemporary research into the impact of major sports events shows that the widely used (and popular) claim of economic benefits associated with hosting them is misleading or – at best – overrated. In this paper, we aim to measure whether other potential intangible effects can be found, specifically that of national pride. We expand on existing research by including more international sports events and nations while also including a medal index into our regression models to test the effect of athletic achievement. Our results suggest that international sporting success is not a significant driver of national pride. Hosting mega sports events is positively correlated with pride, although this is not significant in our estimations. Implications for nations are that they should become much more strategic in order to harvest potential intangible effects.
- The Perceived Influence of Sport Event Spectatorship on Subjective Wellbeing, Girish Ramchandani, Richard Coleman, Robbie Millar, Journal of Global Sport Management, (September 2019). The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceived influence of major sports events on the subjective wellbeing of spectators. The research covered three sporting events featuring racket sports held in the UK between 2017 and 2018 and was concerned with spectators (aged 16 and over) who attended one of these events. Four aspects of subjective wellbeing were considered: life satisfaction, happiness, feeling worthwhile, and anxiety. A composite subjective wellbeing measure encompassing these aspects was also developed. Primary data were collected from spectators at each event and an overall spectator sample of 362 was achieved. Respondents perceived that their subjective wellbeing was enhanced significantly as a consequence of attending major sports events across all measures. We also found that frequency of event attendance and being inspired by events to be more physically active were positively and significantly associated with perceived improvements in subjective wellbeing attributed to attending events. Our study indicates that there are two potential mechanisms through which improvements in subjective wellbeing from attending major sports events are manifested. First, a direct effect of being at an event on subjective wellbeing. Second, an indirect effect of event attendance on subjective wellbeing that stems from a feeling of inspiration.
- Does national pride from international sporting success contribute to well-being? An international investigation, Tim Pawlowski, Paul Downward, Simona Rasciute, Sport Management Review, Volume 17(2), pp.121-132, (May 2014). This paper addresses the hypothesis that investment in international sporting success creates pride from success, which contributes to subjective well-being. The findings do not support the hypothesis that pride following from sporting success can contribute distinctly to SWB. Moreover, the hosting of events may be more important than success at them, a point suggested by the positive association between attendance at sporting events and SWB.
- Happiness, pride and elite sporting success: What population segments gain most from national athletic achievements? Kirstin Hallmann, Christoph Breuer, and Benedikt Kühnreich, Sport Management Review, Volume 16(2), pp.226-235, (May 2013). The aim of this paper is to analyse what factors influence perceived national pride and happiness when athletes succeed at major national and/or international competitions. Based on a nation-wide survey, data was collected from n = 2006 randomly selected Germans by means of a computer assisted telephone interview. The results reveal that 66.2% respondents felt proud and 65.6% respondents were happy when German athletes were successful at major events. Women, individuals with a low educational background, and low income and individuals having a migration background are the population segments who gain most from the sporting success of elite athletes. The results show in particular that the funding of elite sports and elite athletes can be considered as policy tool for social integration.
- The trickle-down effect: what population groups benefit from hosting major sports events? Pamela Wicker, Popi Sotiriadou, International Journal of Event Management Research, Volume 8(2), (2013). This study analyses whether some population groups benefit from hosting a major sport event like the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games more than others. Results show that younger people, less educated people, and people of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin are more likely to spend more time participating in sport as a result of Melbourne hosting the Commonwealth Games. Younger people with no formal education and people who are not in a relationship are more likely to take up a new activity. Older people, females, and the locals are more likely to gain a positive attitude. The results inform policy makers and sport event managers who plan for the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast, Australia.
- The inspirational effects of three major sport events, Girish M. Ramchandani, Richard J. Coleman, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 3(3), pp.257-271, (2012). This article investigated whether attending one-of sports events might inspire audiences to increase participation in sport or physical activitiy. Based on data collected from spectators at 3 major UK events the authors found that around two-thirds of respondents reported that they had been inspired to increase their participation. The authors comment that it is reasonable that in order for 'trickle-down' effect to occur it is reasonable to assume that people must first be 'inspired' by event experiences, however, the provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport was also found to be the most important way to convert inspiration into participation.
- Correlates of pride in the performance success of United States athletes competing on an international stage, Bryan Denham, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Volume 45(4), (2010). This research examines how demographic and media-use measures associate with national pride, as experienced through the success of US athletes competing internationally. The results indicated greater levels of national pride among black males, older respondents, those who classified themselves as republicans, and those with lower levels of formal education. Exposure to newspapers and television did not generally prove statistically significant, although those exposed most frequently to television tended to agree in significantly higher numbers with the statement ‘When my country does well in international sports, it makes me proud to be an American.’
- SA HB 204, Measuring Social Value – guidance on approach and methodologies, Standards Australia, (16 December 2022). Provides guidance and sets out a principle-based framework for measuring social impact, including eight principles, and recommends developing an impact thesis and using a scientific method. Intended to help decision makers determine the appropriate choice of measurement approach in the context of decisions they need to make.
- Social impact is defined as: positive or negative change in the lived experience of people beyond financial impact that can contribute to systemic or enduring change, usually defined in reference to 1) effects resulting from the initiative; 2) effects experienced by beneficiaries and all others affected; 3) what the situation would have been without the initiative. Valuation approaches can be either monetary or non-monetary.
- Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (2022).We want to ensure there are low or barrier free ways to access the Games and surrounding events. And every legacy programme will consider how it can reach and include the people who might not ordinarily take part.
- Social values charter, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (February 2022).
- Sustainability policy, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). We are committed to the following governing principles of sustainable development: Inclusivity – To ensure that all interested parties are able to participate without fear of discrimination; Integrity – To conduct GC2018 in an ethical manner, consistent with international standards of behaviour; Stewardship – To take responsibility for the economic, environmental and social outcomes to be shared by all; Transparency – To communicate willingly and openly about the decisions and activities that affect the social, environmental and economic outcomes of our actions; Leadership – To demonstrate leadership by delivering GC2018 to international standards, constantly improving our ways of working and meeting all legal and other requirements. Related documents include:
- Sustainability [website], Gold Coast 2018, (accessed 22 October 2021). As a transformational event, GC2018 presents a unique opportunity to demonstrate leadership in sustainability by delivering to international standards of best practice, leaving positive economic, environmental, social and community legacies that last beyond the Closing Ceremony.
- Towards a Sustainable GC2018, Gold Coast 2018 XXI Commonwealth Games, (September 2017). This sustainability framework “Towards a sustainable GC2018” was first published in 2014. Since that time, the organisation has undergone significant growth and evolution. Therefore, to ensure that GOLDOC’s approach to sustainability continues to evolve and in accordance with GOLDOC’s commitment to continual improvement, this document has been reviewed with minor updates incorporated.
- Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games Sustainability Plan, Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games, (2016). The Tokyo 2020 Games set five main sustainability themes, which Tokyo 2020, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, the Government of Japan and other delivery partners work on in preparations for and operations of the Games. In addition, Tokyo 2020 formulated the Tokyo 2020 Sustainable Sourcing Code as a tool to ensure sustainability throughout the supply chains of products and services Tokyo 2020 procures as well as licensed products.
- Human Rights, Labour and Fair Business Practices - We will operate the Games in accordance with the UN’s Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
- Involvement, Cooperation and Communications (Engagement) - Through the participation and collaboration of entire society, we will create the Games which open to everyone.
- eventIMPACTS, (accessed 13 January 2023). Developed by a consortium of UK-based organisations that have an interest in staging or supporting major public events, the eventIMPACTS ToolKit is intended to provide organisers and supporters of public events with some key guidance and good practice principles for evaluating the Economic, Social, Environmental and Media related impacts associated with their event. Each area of impact has links to the available supporting documents, case studies and survey tools.
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Economic value
Events can stimulate infrastructure spending, employment, tourism, international exposure, and other potential economic and social benefits.
Economic value
Australia has been highly successful in attracting many of the world’s highest profile sporting events, such as Olympic and Paralympic Games, Commonwealth Games, and World Championships in a range of sports, the Asian Football Confederation Cup, Cricket World Cup, Rugby World Cup, Formula One Grand Prix, Tour Down Under, and many more.
These events stimulate infrastructure spending, employment, tourism (both Australian and international), international exposure, and other potential economic and social benefits. 8
Hosting a major sporting event will generally rely upon some level of assistance from local, state/territory, and/or federal governments. 9,11 Data on most economic inputs reflect the cost of facilities and infrastructure and organisational cost, including employment, marketing, and security. 8 Profit/loss reports reflect only the direct outputs, such as merchandising and ticket sales.
Various forms of economic analysis are based upon models with very different assumptions, particularly in terms of the initial investment and long-term legacy. For example, not all events require a heavy infrastructure investment. The 2015 Asian Cup football tournament used primarily existing infrastructure and stadiums and therefore did not need major infrastructure funding and could capitalise on other investment opportunities. 9 On the other hand, it has been argued the lead-up investment in the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, which required heavy infrastructure investment, had a slightly negative economic impact when analysed as a stand-alone investment. 10
It is likely that a very substantial (if short term) boost to the local economy can result from a sporting event, which does not show on an event profit/loss statement. 12 The various economic and social impacts on the community are not always apparent. 13,14
Major sporting events can also be used as a catalyst for new market development in emerging innovation sectors, targeting emerging competitive advantage areas for Australia and leveraging business and government networks (business-to-business outcomes, international relations, diplomacy, and public-private partnerships). They can also offer Australian companies unique access to global markets and partnerships. 15 The Australian Government’s global trade network alongside peak industry bodies, including the Australian chambers of commerce, play a critical role in facilitating business outcomes in global sports markets. 15
More information on the tourism and international reputation impacts of events can be found in the Showcasing Australia section of this topic.
Estimates of economic impact of key events
- The 2020 Santos Tour Down Under (cycling) attracted 44,000 people to South Australia, generated a significant injecting 742 jobs and more than AU$66 million into the economy. The event also receives wide international media coverage. In 2018 the TDU generated 27,500 items of media coverage which had a potential audience of 558 million people worldwide. 17
- The economic impact of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games for Queensland is AUD$2billion increase in Gross State Product (GSP) over 9 years; including over 16,000 jobs. 18
- The 2015 Cricket World Cup in Australia and New Zealand generated more than AU$1.1 billion in direct spending and created the equivalent of 8,320 full-time jobs. 16
- The 2015 Asian Cup (football) exceeded all expectations with attendance figures of over 620,000 (an average of 20,326 per game) with eight sell out matches (including three not involving the Socceroos). The event created AU$128 million in direct expenditure and the Football Federation Australia (FFA) saw a 6% increase in club registrations. 9,19
- The 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games was estimated to result in an increase in GSP of around AU$1.6 billion. The positive impact of the Games on the Victorian economy was derived primarily from tourism and facilities investment (required to undertake the Games). 20
Resources and reading
- Bathurst 1000 Turbocharges Central West Economy, NSW Government, Destination NSW media release, (10 October 2022). The Repco Bathurst 1000 has roared around Mount Panorama, showcasing exhilarating motor racing and driving significant economic benefits to the region. “An estimated 20,000 visitors made the trip to Bathurst over the four-day event injecting $17 million in tourism dollars, with many fans extending their visit to the broader Central West,” Mr Franklin said.
- NRL Grand Final injects millions into NSW economy, NSW Government media release, (4 October 2022). Minister for Tourism Ben Franklin said Sydney was the perfect host for the game’s showpiece event with more than 83,000 fans packing out Accor Stadium in a sell-out. “An estimated 31,000 visitors made the trip to NSW to watch the NRL Grand Final, injecting $18 million into our economy, with the majority spent in the western Sydney region including on accommodation, hospitality and entertainment,” Mr Franklin said.
- Inside the industry preparing for a ‘golden decade’ of jobs - and you might not even know they exist, Alex Chapman, 7news, (19 June 2022). Sports industry experts are expecting a “golden decade” with Australia set to host the Olympic Games in 2032 and the Commonwealth Games in 2026. Combine that with recurring annual events such as the Australian Open and the Formula 1 and tens of thousands of jobs are expected to be created. But Dr Hunter Fujak of Deakin University says that next to nobody knows the opportunities exist. “Sport jobs are kind of like an iceberg,” he told 7NEWS.com.au. “And part of the reason we don’t think of them is because we see the athletes on the screen, but it takes a village to grow an athlete.”
- Sporting thrills on wheels returning for Santos Festival of Cycling, Tourism SA, (20 September 2021). The Santos Tour Down Under is a much-loved event on the world cycling and Australian sporting calendar and an important economic driver for South Australia, attracting 44,000 people, injecting 742 jobs and more than $66 million into the economy when last held in 2020.
- Economic impact of Cricket World Cup 2019 revealed, Ben Avison, Host City, (4 March 2020). The findings of an economic impact and benefits analysis carried out on behalf of the ICC by The Sports Consultancy show that the tournament generated almost GBP 350 million of economic impact through additional money spent in the host economy by event visitors and organisers as well as business to business supplier contracts and broader consumer spend.
- £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019.
- Play for all: Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Nicola Alcorn, Deloitte, (8 February 2019). Invictus Games Sydney 2018 welcomed 491 competitors and over 1000 of their family and friends from 18 participating nations for 8 days of competition. The celebration of strength and recovery inspired many, and amassed 1000 avid volunteers for the event. The events were held in Sydney Harbour and at Sydney Olympic Park, enabling community participation and driving community spirit through play.
- It is estimated that competitors, family and friends, volunteers, and the general public spent approximately $5.4 million during their stay in NSW and 94% of this expenditure was in Sydney. The total organising, planning and tourism contribution of the Games is estimated at $29.7 million in value added and supported 211 FTE employees in the NSW economy.
- Gold Coast Marathon pumps $28.5 million into economy, Gold Coast Marathon, (11 September 2018). The 40th edition of the Gold Coast Marathon generated a record-breaking $28.5 million and more than 100,000 visitor nights for the Queensland economy. New data shows the event also attracted more than 27,000 participants including more than 6500 in the sold-out signature marathon event. The Marathon was the first major sporting event on the Gold Coast after the Games and gave runners the chance to run parts of the Commonwealth Games course. The feedback we’ve received showed this was added incentive for international athletes.
- Tour Down Under 2018 attracts record number of spectators and generates $63.7million, Nigel Wynn, Cycling Weekly, (16 May 2018). Australian WorldTour stage race breaks its previous record for number of spectators and visitors, and the amount of revenue generated by the January event. In addition to those who turned up to watch the race in person, the 2018 Tour Down Under generated 27,500 items of media coverage which had a potential audience of 558 million people worldwide.
- Euro 2016 generates €1.22bn boost to French economy - report, Sport Business International, (12 January 2017). France’s hosting of the Uefa Euro 2016 national team football tournament provided a boost to the national economy of €1.22bn ($1.28bn), according to a report issued by the Centre for Law and Economics of Sport (CDES).
- New report confirms record-breaking Rugby World Cup 2015 economic impact, World Rugby, (25 May 2016). RWC 2015 was the most economically-successful Rugby World Cup ever, with nearly £2.3 billion generated in economic output according to a report published by Ernst and Young.
- How Global Sporting Events Score Economic Goals, Mike Fletcher, Raconteur, (2 March 2016). As another summer of spectacular sport beckons, what is the business case for hosting a major global sporting event? Is the investment in stadiums and infrastructure matched by increased visitor numbers and spending?
- Stats show Asian Cup in Australia brought $81m in direct spending [paywall], Tom Smithies, Daily Telegraph, (31 January 2016). A year after the Socceroos lifted the AFC Asian Cup, new research shows that hosting Asia's football showpiece created $81 million in economic impact for the country. More than $7 million was added to the country’s gross domestic product by a tournament that sold more than 650,000 tickets and produced eight sold-out games - a quarter of the overall fixtures. Fans flocked to games generating an average attendance of 20,000 spectators per game, partly driven by Australia’s successful run but also by a wide ranging multicultural program run by organisers in the build-up. The research shows that $81 million total direct expenditure nationally can be attributed to the Asian Cup, generating a boost of $7.3 million to GDP. Though this figure was only a third of some pre-tournament forecasts, the 2015 edition of the AFC Asian Cup was seen as easily the most successful in its history from a football perspective, with ticket sales 30% higher than the forecasts beforehand. More than 300 jobs were created, 15,000 tourists came from overseas and almost 30,000 interstate travellers visited other Australian states specifically for the Asian Cup. Of the $81 million of direct expenditure, $30 million came from the tournament’s Local Organising Committee (funded by the federal, NSW, Queensland and Victorian governments), $8m from interstate visitors and $43.2 million from international travellers.
- ICC Cricket World Cup Demonstrates Value of Big Event, Tourism Australia, media release, (30 June 2015). According to Tourism Australia the findings of a report analysing the economic impact and benefits of the 2015 ICC Cricket World Cup demonstrate the value and importance of Australian tourism backing large scale events. The tourism benefits of the tournament to Australia included:
- 770,000 in total attendance at the Australian matches;
- 370,000 visitors, including 100,000 from overseas;
- $325m in international visitor spending;
- 1.5m bed nights, including 815,000 for international visitors.
- Minding The Gap Between London's Olympic Economic Hype And Reality, Kenneth Rapoza, Forbes, (2 August 2012). Looks at the potential ROI of London hosting the Olympic Games referencing case studies of several other cities, such as Atlanta and Salt Lake City. Seems to argue that the long term results are generally positive, particularly in regards to updating major infrastructure (such as the London subway system). Such projects, without the impetus of hosting a Games, may not receive public support, but still provide a long-term benefit.
- Study on the environmental and socio-economic impact of the FIFA Women's World Cup France 2019™, Utopies for Local Organising Committee and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), (February 2020: Translation: March 2021). Reflecting six months of work involving numerous organisations and territories, the results of the study provide a better understanding of and make it possible to gauge the environmental impact of the competition, as well as its economic influence and net capital gain for each of the affected territories. Since evaluating its social impact is a long-term process, this is still being analysed. Some of the key economic impacts highlighted included:
- The competition made a direct, indirect and induced contribution of EUR 284m to France’s gross domestic product (GDP).
- The net capital gain generated by the tournament is estimated to have contributed EUR 108m to France’s GDP (i.e. the annual salaries of 2,244 people).
- Each euro spent on the organisation of this tournament (LOC + host territories), contributed EUR 1.30 to the GDP.
- A total of EUR 195m was spent in France, of which 48% was spent by organisers (LOC, FIFA, FFF, host territories) and 52% by visitors (French and foreign).
- Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key economic benefits and costs identified were:
- Spending to host the Commonwealth Games boosts the host city/country economy in the years before, during and after the Games. Hosting the Games has boosted GDP in the host city/region by £0.8 billion– £1.2 billion and generated between 13,600 and 23,000 full time equivalent (FTE) years of employment before, during and after the Games.
- Hosting the Games has led to increases in tourism of up to 25% in the three years after hosting, as well as trade deals agreements and investments of up to £400 million into the host city.
- Total Games-related operating expenditure ranges from £221 million for Manchester 2002 to £749 million for Gold Coast 2018, whilst Games-related capital expenditure has varied between £75 million for Glasgow 2014 to £292 million for Gold Coast 2018. The public sector has historically contributed between 54% (Manchester 2002) and 83% (Gold Coast 2018) of the Games-related operating costs.
- The Games have provided an effective fiscal dividend to host cities as they have attracted public funding which they would not otherwise have received. For example: for every £1 spent by local government on total Games-related expenditure (operating and capital), the national (and devolved) government contributed £2.7 in Manchester 2002 and £3.0 in Glasgow 2014; in Australia, the state government contributed 75% and 79% of total public-sector Games-related expenditure in Melbourne 2006 and Gold Coast 2018 respectively.
- 2032 SEQ Olympic and Paralympic Games Feasibility Study, Council of Mayors South East Queensland and Lagardere Sports/EKS, (February 2019). The report considers two essential questions in determining feasibility. The first is ‘can’ the Games be staged in South East Queensland (SEQ)? The second, and perhaps more important question is ‘should’ Council of Mayors (SEQ) propose the hosting of an Olympic Games? It concludes that with an estimated bottom line of $900 million, early assessments indicate the Olympic and Paralympic Games are an affordable proposition for SEQ. The Council of Mayors (SEQ) encourages the Queensland Government to join with the SEQ Mayors in undertaking further economic assessments.
- Economic impacts of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games: 2018 Post-Games Report, Tien Duc Pham, Susanne Becken, Michael Powell, Griffith University, (November 2018). This report, produced by Griffith University in 2018, builds on the earlier 2017 Economic Impact Study utilising Games year and post-Games data that is now available. It estimates the likely overall economic and employment benefits of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games for Queensland over the nine-year pre-Games, Games-year, and post-Games period (2013-2022).
- Post-Games Sustainability Report, Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation, (August 2018). GC2018 was a transformational event for the Gold Coast, our event cities and communities throughout Queensland. It created new opportunities, built capacity and shaped an enduring legacy that will last beyond the Closing Ceremony. It is estimated that GC2018 had a cumulative viewing audience of 1.5 billion worldwide, reaching 16 million individuals in Australia alone. The GC2018 website had 113 million hits, while our social media channels had over 1.5 million followers, eclipsing previous Commonwealth Games records. There were more than 1.2 million spectators in the competition venues and over 1.1 million people experienced the Festival 2018 program held across Queensland. Delivering a GC2018 to international sustainable event management standards supported our Games Delivery Partner’s shared vision for a strong and diversified economy, a pristine natural environment and an active, inclusive Gold Coast community. Some key economic impact and legacy outcomes included:
- Over 1,500 employees; 15,000 volunteers; 238 student internships; over 30,000 contractors.
- 342 infrastructure projects across the Gold Coast and Tweed regions linked to GC2018, worth a total of $13.2 billion.
- 680,000 people spending $1.1 billion in the local economy. Estimates GC2018 will deliver $4 billion in economic activity for Queensland.
- Gold Coast business and the Commonwealth Games: Impact, legacy and opportunity, Joan Carlini and Andrew O’Neil, Griffith University, (July 2017). This report seeks to provide clarity around the various opportunities for business resulting from GC2018. It also aims to assist business to set realistic expectations enabling strategic decisions that will drive success, long after the Games has concluded. The report is structured in two parts. Part one provides background and context by detailing the scope of GC2018, lessons from previous global sporting mega-events, and the unique characteristics of GC2018 in relation to the Gold Coast. Part two identifies the macro factors affecting the Gold Coast, and provides an in-depth analysis of the opportunities for business to leverage major benefits from GC2018.
- Cricket World Cup 2015 Ltd: economic impact and benefit analysis of the ICC Cricket World Cup 2015, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Final Report, (2015). The ICC CWC 2015 was hailed by the ICC Chairman as the ‘most popular Cricket World Cup in history’, based on a combination of attendance, television audience, and, perhaps most significantly, digital media. The widespread reach of the Tournament across much of the globe, including many non-cricketing nations, was one of the main contributors to its overwhelming success. This report found that the tournament provided a significant economic boost for co-hosts Australia and New Zealand, generating more than AU$1.1 billion in direct spending and creating the equivalent of 8,320 full-time jobs.
- Annual report 2014-2015, Australian Government, Department of Health, (2015). The Asian Cup exceeded all expectations with attendance figures of over 620,000 (an average of 20,326 per game) with eight sell out matches (including three not involving the Socceroos). The CWC sold over 1 million tickets and had a global reach of more than 1.5 billion people. The events achieved significant outcomes in relation to the economy, trade and the community: the Asian Cup created $128 million in direct expenditure and Football Federation Australia has already seen a 6% increase in club registrations; the CWC injected $1.10 billion into the Australian and New Zealand economies and created 8,320 full-time equivalent jobs across the two nations.
- Reinventing rural places: the extent and impact of festivals in rural and regional Australia, Gibson C, Stewart A, University of Wollongong,(2009). This Australian Research Council project examined festivals from 2005-2008 in rural and regional Australia through a database profile of festivals across three states (NSW, Victoria and Tasmania). Sport made up 36.5 % of festivals captured. Information was collected on job creation, volunteerism, marketing and advertising, environment and community. This research will assist those planning sporting events in rural and regional communities.
- Economic impact study of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games: Post-event analysis, KPMG and the Office of Commonwealth Games Coordination, (2006). The total expenditure associated with the 2006 Games in Victoria was around $2.9 billion. In terms of the impact on the Victorian economy, using a Computable General Equilibrium modelling approach, the 2006 Games was estimated to result in an increase in Gross State Product of around $1.6 billion. The positive impact of the Games on the Victorian economy is derived from two major effects: (1) the external money input into the economy of Victoria through tourist visitation; and (2) the bringing forward of the activity associated with the facilities investment required to undertake the Games.
- Brisbane Olympic Games 2032: Will the Olympics deliver a net benefit for the Australian community? Rodney Bogaards, Department of Parliamentary Services, Parliamentary Library Australia, (29 March 2022). There are a number of reasons why the IOC’s ‘New Norm’ changes may not be sufficient to prevent future Games’ hosts exceeding their budgets. A recent research paper has put forward six additional steps for better Games management. These steps should be studied by any prospective host government that is yet to fully commit to hosting the Olympic Games.
- Re-analysis, measurement and misperceptions of cost overruns at Olympic Games, Holger Preuss, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 14(3), pp.381-400, (February 2022). The so-called ‘Oxford Study’ by Flyvbjerg et al shows Olympic cost overrun of 170-750% with a substantial risk of a further cost overrun above this range in the future. The aim of this paper is to re-analyse the results by using a method in accordance with the international convention of comparing across time and geographies. The dataset used has abundantly more governmental data than in the Oxford Study. The results of the Oxford Study for the period of 2000–2016 could not be replicated. It is argued why the statistical analysis and their data reliability are misleading, thus leading to a discovery of six typical misperceptions. In contrast to those authors, this paper shows cost overruns (Olympics 2000–2014) for direct non-OCOG investments in the range of 13–178%. Further, it shows that the costs of the Olympic Games represent less than 0.28% of the GDP; hence, it is clear that the Games cannot cause a severe national economic crisis. This paper provides a discussion on the underlying assumptions of the Oxford study, thus providing valuable insights for politicians who intend to submit an Olympic bid, and contextualises cost overruns caused by fixed deadlines and long planning horizons. I disagree with the claim by Flyvbjerg et al. that hosts give a blank cheque to the IOC and I contend that demands and a tight coupling are fixed in the Host City Contract, thus negating the blank cheque assertion.
- Mega Sporting Events and Inward Foreign Direct Investment: An Investigation of the Differences Among the Types of Sporting Events and Host Countries, Kaveepong Lertwachara, Jittima Tongurai, Pattana Boonchoo, Journal of Sport Management, Volume 36(1), pp.9-24, (2022). Building on the location advantage theory for international business, the authors used the event study approach, used extensively in the finance literature, to examine the effects of hosting mega sporting events on inward foreign direct investment (FDI) in countries that hosted the Olympic Games, the International Federation of Association Football World Cup, the Union of European Football Associations Championship, and the Asian Games between 1960 and 2018. In general, the authors’ findings suggested that host countries experienced beneficial effects from hosting mega sporting events. Increases in FDI inflows were more pronounced following the hosting announcements and until the event year. Hosting the Summer Olympic Games, the Union of European Football Associations Championship, and the International Federation of Association Football World Cup all drew a high level of positive abnormal FDI, while hosting the Asian Games induced negative abnormal FDI. The effects of hosting mega sporting events on inward FDI were also found to differ between countries. For instance, host countries in the Middle East and North Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean appeared to benefit more from hosting a mega sporting event.
- Assessing the Olympic Games: the economic impacts and beyond, Pasquale Lucio Scandizzo, Maria Rita Pierleoni, Journal of Economic Surveys, Volume 32(3), pp.649-682, (July 2018). The study reviews the main approaches to the economic assessment of the Games, from the point of view of the underlying economic concepts and methodologies, as well as of the empirical results obtained. It focuses on the effects that are measured and on those, which even though important, are generally neglected. The general findings appear to be controversial with some hints of positive overall effects, but also with a well-documented tendency to exaggerate the benefits and underestimate the costs of holding the Games in the ex ante versus the ex post studies. The survey finally suggests that ex post cross-country econometric studies tend to catch sizable differential and persistent benefits ignored by individual studies, especially on macroeconomic and trade variables.
- Mega-sport events, micro and small business leveraging: introducing the 'MSE-MSB leverage model', Seth Kirby, Michael Duignan, David McGillivray, Event Management, Volume 22, pp.917-931, (2018). Micro and small business (MSB) interests legitimize mega-sport event (MSE) candidature bids. Yet, MSB interests can be sidelined in the event lead up, live staging, and legacy periods. This article provides a detailed: 1) review of MSE impacts on existing MSBs residing within targeted host communities, 2) conceptual and practical examination of MSE leveraging opportunities, 3) synthesis of good inclusionary practices identified in previous MSE case studies. As a result, a series of general and specific ways MSEs can foster MSB leveraging and legitimize local interests are suggested. We present a comprehensive analysis of key works since mid-1990s related to the themes identified above. Our analysis identifies that there is limited conceptual and empirical research on MSB impact and leveraging activities in the context of MSEs, yet significant evidence points to negative experiences, disruption, and displacement effects on residential (host) communities. We purposively focus on good practice in the context of other MSEs from the Olympics Games (e.g., London 2012, Rio 2016) and FIFA World Cup (e.g., South Africa, 2010) to inform recommendations and managerial implications. We outline a systematic series of ways MSBs can be structurally excluded from accessing MSE leveraging opportunities. Building on Chalip’s widely adopted event leverage model (ELM), we present the “MSE–MSB Leverage Model” to illustrate how MSEs can (re)position MSBs as legitimate stakeholders to support greater leveraging opportunities and better (re)distribute event benefits back into host communities across planning and delivery stages. These range from reconfiguring: 1) event planning principles and policies, 2) regulatory and trading environments, and 3) the development of MSB business-to-business networks and partnerships.
- Economic legacy to cities of hosting major sports events: A case study of London 2012, Chris Gratton, Girish Ramchandani, Chapter 8 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). This chapter provides a framework to identify the key elements that make up economic legacy and then goes on to use that framework to measure the direct economic benefits to London and the UK from hosting the summer Olympics in 2012. The final section deals with the indirect economic benefits that are generated as a result of the hosting of the Olympics, leading to an increase in sport participation which then generates other economic benefits following the event.
- Bringing Home the Gold? A Review of the Economic Impact of Hosting Mega-Events, Barrios, D., Russell, S., Andrews, M., CID Working Paper No. 320, Harvard University, (July 2016). This article focuses on claims surrounding the direct or indirect mechanisms that facilitate the impact that ex-ante studies predict. We provide a review of these claims and their validity according to the existing literature.
- Going for Gold: The Economics of the Olympics, Robert Baade, Victor Matheson, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 30(2), pp.201-218, (Spring 2016). In this paper, we explore the costs and benefits of hosting the Olympic Games. On the cost side, there are three major categories: general infrastructure such as transportation and housing to accommodate athletes and fans; specific sports infrastructure required for competition venues; and operational costs, including general administration as well as the opening and closing ceremony and security. Three major categories of benefits also exist: the short-run benefits of tourist spending during the Games; the long-run benefits or the "Olympic legacy" which might include improvements in infrastructure and increased trade, foreign investment, or tourism after the Games; and intangible benefits such as the "feel-good effect" or civic pride.
- Assessing the Olympics: Preliminary economic analysis of a Boston 2024 Games – Impacts, opportunities and risks, University of Massachusetts, Donahue Institute for Economic and Public Policy Research, (March 2015). This report neither suggests that holding the 2024 Olympic Games will be an economic success, nor does it predict economic disaster. Instead, it shows that staging an Olympics Games could be a net economic positive, but that success will depend upon smart budgeting and effective planning to avoid some of the huge cost overruns that have beset some Olympics host cities in the past.
- The hidden benefits of non-elite mass participation sports events: An economic perspective,, Coleman R, Ramchandani G, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Volume 12(1), (2010). This paper examines the hidden financial benefits that non-elite events are capable of delivering for host cities. The paper provides examples of how mass participation (and other non-elite) events can generate substantial economic impacts comparable to, and in some cases greater than, those associated with elite events. The cost-effectiveness of hosting mass participation events, relative to major elite sports events, is discussed.
- The Sydney Olympics, seven years on: An ex-post dynamic CGE assessment, Giesecke J, Madden J, Centre of Policy Studies, Monash University, General Paper Number G-168, (2007). This analysis is based upon a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. This analysis found that the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games generated a net consumption loss of approximately $2.1 billion. The increase in foreign tourist spending lifted Australia’s terms of trade by only 0.09% in 2000-01. The sectors that gained most were those who sold goods, provided accommodation, services and transport to tourists.
- Socio-economic impact of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, Haynes J, Centre d’Estudis Olimpics UAB, (2001). The total cost of staging the Olympic Games as announced by NSW Treasurer Michael Egan was $6.5 billion. Several projection reports on the economic impact of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games appeared before the Games, they estimated that over the period 1994-95 through 2005-06 the Sydney Games would generate a total of $6.5 billion in economic activity, a large part of this through increased tourism.
- eventIMPACTS, (accessed 13 January 2023). Developed by a consortium of UK-based organisations that have an interest in staging or supporting major public events, the eventIMPACTS ToolKit is intended to provide organisers and supporters of public events with some key guidance and good practice principles for evaluating the Economic, Social, Environmental and Media related impacts associated with their event. Each area of impact has links to the available supporting documents, case studies and survey tools.
- The Australian Trade and Investment Commission – Austrade – is Australia’s leading trade and investment agency. We are experts in connecting Australian businesses to the world and the world to Australian businesses.
- Major Sporting Events overview, Austrade, (accessed 17 January 2023). Genuine opportunities for Australian expertise and capability exist across all stages of the 10 year major sporting event lifecycle which includes: bidding; planning; event staging services; operations/management; cultural/ceremonies and venue design/construction. Major sporting events are linked closely to government/public sector support and operations in host countries and it can be difficult for private enterprise to gain the trusted access that comes with being a Government agency. Australia is recognised internationally as a world-leader in major sporting event delivery. Over 140 Australian companies and major sporting event specialists have played pivotal roles shaping every major sporting event around the world since the Olympics in Sydney in 2000.
- Australia. Creating World Class Sporting Events, Australian Government, Australian Trade and Investment Commission, (2018). Australian companies have been at the forefront of the world’s premier sporting events for many years, demonstrating a global track record of knowledge, experience and expertise.
- Events: Drivers of Regional Tourism, Tourism Research Australia/Austrade, (August 2014). Tourism Research Australia’s National Visitor Survey shows that over half of all domestic day and overnight trips in 2013 were to regional destinations (58%), where visitors spent $34 billion. Attending a sport event as a spectator was one of the most popular event types. While, regarding travelling to attend sport competitions (participate/compete) the report highlights that they "have a strong niche appeal and ability to drive trips further from home, but are best promoted through special interest groups."
- Australia's major sporting events (MSE) capabilities, Austrade, YouTube, (accessed 17 January 2023). Australia has a distinguished track record helping host nations create and stage the world's premier sporting events. Here are some of our stories.
Access to resources
Where possible, direct links to full-text and online resources are provided. However, where links are not available, you may be able to access documents directly by searching our licenced full-text databases (note: user access restrictions apply). Alternatively, you can ask your institutional, university, or local library for assistance—or purchase documents directly from the publisher. You may also find the information you’re seeking by searching Google Scholar.
Sport Participation
Event organisers should ensure that sports organisations have the resources and organisational capacity to capitalise on the public interest that is generated
Sport participation
Participation in sport is not just for players, but also includes administrators, coaches, officials, board members, fans, spectators, families, and more. Some of these roles may be paid or volunteer. Major sporting events can be a way to better engage these groups to help increase engagement in sport and strengthen the sector.
Increasing the number of players and volunteers are often seen as key outcomes for events because of the general health and wellbeing benefits that this can have for individuals and the broader community. For more information on these benefits see the Value and Benefits of Sport Evidence Base.
We know that sport, particularly high-performance sport, is one of the most powerful and popular attractions or activities for people to watch/experience either in person or via broadcast. In 2021-22: 21
- 53% of Australians (18+) watched a live sporting event
- 23% went to a live sports event
- 14% bought or wore supporter merchandise for an Australian professional team.
In the same year, Australians 18+ who had started or shown interest in a new sport or becoming more physically active said they had been inspired by: 21
- watching sport on TV or live (60%)
- an Australian athlete being a good role model (57%)
- Australians succeeding internationally (56%)
- seeing / hearing about Olympic, Paralympic, or Commonwealth Games sports/athletes (56%).
However, engagement alone does not lead to increases in participation.
Challenges
Various reports and research have highlighted that participation legacy outcomes may not meet expectations, especially when there has been limited long term planning, investment, and/or organisational capacity for sports organisations to capitalise on the interest that is generated. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29
- For example, if watching or attending the Olympic and Paralympic Games generates 50 new people to try archery in a region, but the club(s) don’t have capacity (facilities, equipment, entry level participation programs, etc.) to accept them, the interest isn’t capitalised on at the time, and then dies away without leading to change/engagement.
- A study after the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games found that: 73% of sports clubs did not believe the Government had done enough to help community sport create a legacy of participation. 42% saw an increase in the number of people joining their club in 2012-13 but a quarter (26%) of them were struggling to meet this demand. 78% of clubs had noticed no change in the number of people volunteering, and 89% reported no change in the number of disabled people joining their club. 24
An additional challenge highlighted in some reports is the lack of agreed and consistent methodology for measuring participation impact. 30, 31 Without clear guidelines in this space, it will be difficult for events to demonstrate success and/or to compare the impact of various strategies across different events.
Success stories
Despite the challenges there is evidence that successful events and athletes can have a positive effect on participation, although it may be short-term and there are often different effects observed between different events, sports, demographic groups, and whether participants were already engaged with sport. 32, 33, 34, 35
The likelihood of a successful event legacy is increased through long-term planning, investment and engagement across multiple spheres, an example of a successful event in this case is the 2019 Netball World Cup in Liverpool, UK. 36, 41
- A key legacy goal of the event was to grow netball participation across the whole Netball Family – players, fans, volunteers, coaches and officials. Whether schools, club members, programme participants, fans, coaches, officials or volunteers, each group had their own individual ‘Road to Liverpool’, which was mapped out and developed into specific legacy goals and action plans.
- England Netball ensured clubs were enthused, empowered and equipped to open their doors when interest peaked during the World Cup. Digital assets for use on social media along with practical resources such as welcome emails, guides to effective promotion and top tips to cater for larger numbers were made available freely. In addition, funding was issued to establish 35 new clubs throughout the Biggest Summer of Netball. Each of these received a special Legacy Club logo which they can use for the rest of their history, connecting them back to the Vitality Netball World Cup 2019.
- 160,000 British women were inspired by the event to start playing netball or play netball more while 60% of UK spectators surveyed during the event reported feeling inspired to increase their participation in sport or active recreation as a result of attending the event.
- During the build-up to the World Cup, England Netball conducted extensive research with current and potential volunteers to understand the volunteering network and develop a clearly defined volunteering strategy for the future. 39% of UK spectators were more likely to volunteer in netball as a result of attending the event.
Additional events that have reported positive participation impacts include:
- Hosting the Commonwealth Games has led to increased sports participation in the host city region from 10% of Victorians taking up sports as a result of Melbourne 2006, and a 5% increase in sports participation in Queensland following Gold Coast 2018. 11
- The 2015 Asian Cup (football) saw a 6% increase in Football Federation Australia (FFA) club participants. 19
The future of participation legacies
Long-term participation impact requires additional resources and planning, pre-, during and post-events to ensure that sports organisations, programs, and facilities are in place to allow prospective players, volunteers, coaches, administrators, fans and more to engage with the sport(s) of their choice easily and successfully. 1, 30, 37, 38, 39 Depending on the event planning and partnerships should include the event owners (e.g. the International Olympic and Paralympic Committees), sport organisations and the broader sector, public health agencies, and more. 26, 40
Resources and reading
- WISH summit calls for sustainable mega sports event legacies which boost physical activity, World Health Organisation (WHO), (6 October 2022). Launched during the World Innovation Summit for Health (WISH), a new report, co-authored by WISH partners and the World Health Organization (WHO), calls on governments, sports authorities, and the wider sporting community to maximize the investment and excitement generated by sports mega events and leave behind more permanent health benefits for communities. The report, Playing the Long Game; A framework for promoting physical activity through sports mega-events, recommends ways to strengthen mega sports event legacies so that they contribute more effectively to increasing physical activity, and improving the health of populations.
- London 2012 Paralympics was not a gamechanger for disabled people’s sports participation – here’s why, Christopher Brown, University of Hertfordshire, The Conversation , (26 August 2022). The Paralympics on its own isn’t enough to create more sporting opportunities for disabled people. Instead, leveraging a sport mega event is vital. This means making plans to improve sports participation on the back of it – including, crucially, providing opportunities for people to participate in different sports before, during and after the event. Yet the research shows this largely didn’t happen for the 2012 Paralympics, making it a missed opportunity to turn interest in sports into regular participation.
- Women's football is expected to soar in Australia after the 2023 World Cup — but a lack of funding has clubs worried, Laura Lavelle, Dan Colasimone, ABC News, (24 August 2022). With the sport's showpiece event taking place on our shores in 2023, football clubs across the country expect interest in women's soccer to reach an all-time high, resulting in a major influx of girls signing up to play. But after decades of disproportionately low government assistance for the round-ball game compared to rugby league, rugby union and AFL, many clubs are still lacking the basic facilities to accommodate female participants.
- Paris 2024 campaign to get children active exceeds target number of schools, Owen Lloyd, Inside the Games, (19 April 2022). Paris 2024's campaign to engage primary school children in 30 minutes of daily exercise is set to be taken up by 48,950 schools, overtaking the target number.
- LA28 launches PlayLA youth sports programme, International Olympic Committee, (9 November 2021). The initiative is made possible by the LA28 Olympic and Paralympic Games Organising Committee and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which are investing USD 160 million to make sport more accessible to kids across Los Angeles ahead of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2028. This initiative is the single largest commitment to youth sports development in California. For more information visit LAParks.org/PlayLA.
- Invictus Australia launches to continue the legacy of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018, Invictus Australia, (28 October 2021). Australia has achieved a world first with the launch today of Invictus Australia. Invictus Australia will be at the forefront of delivering sport recovery programs and services to improve the health and wellbeing of military veterans and their families, using sport as the primary vehicle. Invictus Australia is the legacy of the highly acclaimed Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Today marks the third anniversary of the closing of those Games. Invictus Australia – previously known as Veteran Sport Australia – has signed a world first agreement with the international Invictus Games Foundation to continue to use the Invictus brand in Australia, with the primary aim of extending support and the power of the Invictus movement beyond the Games. Through collaboration with sport, community and veteran organisations, Invictus Australia will deliver more opportunities for veterans and their families to engage in sport from grassroots participation through to international competition.
- In Search of Inspiration: Re-thinking the Potential for Demonstration Effects, Luke Potwarka, University of Waterloo, SIRCuit, (13 July 2020). The question of the “existence” of demonstration effects may be far more nuanced than simply claiming they do or do not exist. It may be time for researchers to temper the debate about the existence of demonstration effects, and instead focus their efforts on investigating the mechanisms and conditions by which sport events are most likely to bring about desired participation impacts. The resulting evidence can help set expectations, assess investments, and guide legacy investments.
- £8.1 million boost for Liverpool economy following Netball World Cup, Sheffield Hallam University, (28 February 2020). The £8.18m boost was generated by the influx of fans (£6.04m), other attendee groups such as the media and event personnel (£1.32m) and the organisers (£0.82m).Overall 6.07 million people in Britain attended, watched or followed the tournament which took place in July 2019. Other findings from the research included:
- Physical wellbeing – 160,000 British women were inspired by the event to start playing netball or play netball more while 60% of UK spectators surveyed during the event reported feeling inspired to increase their participation in sport or active recreation as a result of attending the event.
- Individual development – 51% of all GB adults who interacted with the event (and 64% of UK female spectators) acquired more knowledge about netball while 46% of UK female spectators felt more confident about their ability to take part in sport and active recreation.
- Superhip to supercrip: the ‘trickle-down’ effect of the Paralympics, Gregor Wolbring, Brian Litke, The Conversation (August 2012). Author argues that despite the increasing success of the Paralympic Games there is no evidence of an automatic 'trickle-down' effect and that more has to be done to address the barriers to participation and ensure this popularity leads to real changes for the average person with a disability.
- The Paralympic Games: Sport participation legacies, Dr Chris Brown, Disability Sport Info, (8 March 2022). In this bitesize episode, I am joined by Dr Laura Misener to critically consider the potential of the Paralympic Games to increase disabled people's grassroots sport participation.
- Sydney Olympic Park 2000-2010: history and legacy, Richard Cashman, Walla Walla Press, (July 2011). Sydney Olympic Park 2000 to 2010 is the first extended study of the realisation of post-Games legacy in an Olympic city. It raises many new questions about the nature of legacy and when legacy obligations end. The book is based on 50 interviews and tells the story of both the Park itself and the people involved in its realisation.
- Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games: Our legacy, Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games, (July 2022). Highlights from the publication include:
- £38 million investment into Physical Activity and Wellbeing legacy including programmes to support inactive people to become more active and encouraging cycling for everyone.
- The first Commonwealth Games to incorporate, measure and evidence the Social Value impacts and benefits of hosting the Games, offering a model to future host cities with £40 million of Social Value delivered so far.
- Playing the long game: A framework for promoting physical activity through sports mega-events. Bull F, Simpson P, Thompson D, et al., World Innovation Summit for Health, (2022). Building on the WISH 2020 report Stepping up to the plate: Planning for a lasting health legacy from major sporting events, this report focuses on the opportunity of SME legacy to improve health by increasing participation in PA locally and globally. It discuss how SME legacy activities can impact behavior change to increase participation in PA, drawing on scientific evidence, research on past SMEs and the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Action Plan on Physical Activity (GAPPA) 2018–2030. The report also presents a framework for the design and implementation of an SME legacy to maximize the impact of participation in PA, building on lessons learned from previous events. It then focusses on Qatar’s experience in preparing for the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022™ (FWC22) and its progress to date in planning and delivering a public health legacy which encourages greater PA and sport participation locally. The report concludes with a number of key recommendations to progress and develop global knowledge, scale the potential health impact of SMEs, and support effective planning and delivery of SME legacy for future events.
- Netball World Cup Liverpool 2019: Legacy impact report, Vitality Netball World Cup Liverpool 2019, (July 2020). England Netball developed a phased business-wide timeline that focussed on different elements of activation through communications, social media campaigns and directly-delivered netball activities. This enabled us to maximise awareness of the event and inspire as many people as possible to attend the event or follow online, as well as building the foundations for the most fruitful post-event participation legacy. To create an inspiring and sustainable legacy for netball, the legacy programme needed to consider the different types of engagement people have or could have with the sport, and provide tailored and bespoke journeys to Liverpool. Whether schools, club members, programme participants, fans, coaches, officials or volunteers, each group had their own individual ‘Road to Liverpool’, which was mapped out and developed into specific legacy goals and action plans.
- Commonwealth Games Value Framework: Final report, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) for the Commonwealth Games Federation, (December 2019). A new report evaluating the benefits and costs of hosting the Commonwealth Games, which is the largest and most detailed analysis of the event in history, has revealed that staging the competition has consistently provided an economic boost of over £1 billion for previous host cities along with an array of positive social and environmental benefits. Some of the key sport participation benefits identified were:
- Hosting the Games has led to increased sports participation in the host city region from 10% of Victorians taking up sports as a result of Melbourne 2006, and a 5% increase in sports participation in Queensland following Gold Coast 2018.
- Invictus Games Sydney 2018 - Game On Down Under Event Review, Australian International Military Games Limited, (2018). This report is a snapshot of the highlights of the Invictus Games Sydney 2018. Some key numbers included: 491 competitors from 18 nations; 1263 volunteers; 105,000 spectators; 10,000+ primary and secondary students attended; 16 assistance dogs. Some key outcomes included:
- RSL NSW, in conjunction with ClubsNSW and the Australian Defence Force (ADF), launching Veteran Sport Australia (VSA). The core principle of VSA is the health and wellbeing of our veterans. This program will encourage them to use the healing power of sport to engage with their community, whether at grassroots level or internationally.
- Research polls in December 2016 soon after the announcement that Sydney would host the Games; also in June 2018 and November 2018.
- 9 out of 10 Australians fully support any program that will help veterans overcome physical injuries and mental health challenges and agree the Invictus Games can make a significant difference in the lives of veterans with physical injuries and mental health challenges.
- Six in ten respondents (volunteers or subscribers) plan to increase their involvement in sport and fitness activities as result of their Invictus Games experience.
- Evaluating the volunteering infrastructure legacy of the Olympic Games: Sydney 2000 and London 2012, Leonie Lockstone-Binney William, Kirsten Holmes, Richard Shipway, et.al., International Olympic Committee Advanced Research Grant Program 2015/16, (June 2016). Two research phases were conducted. Stage 1 involved a comprehensive review of secondary data on the Sydney and London Olympic and Paralympic Games, and Stage 2 involved 27 interviews with key informants in each host city. The findings reveal limitations with legacy planning for each OCOG. While SOCOG had no specific remit for legacy planning, the voluntary sector led legacy efforts in Australia. In London there was Government-led legacy planning but the failure to engage with the voluntary sector hampered implementation. Recommendations are provided for host cities and the IOC to enable future Olympic Games host cities and countries to leverage from the Games volunteer programmes to generate wider benefits for their communities.
- Olympic and Paralympic legacy survey. Sport and Recreation Alliance, (2013). While not specific to the Paralympic Games this report includes questions specifically relating to the impact of the Games on persons with disability participating in sport and the more general public perception of people with a disability. It argues that here has been no Olympic and Paralympic Games to date that has successfully produced a sporting legacy. In October 2012 the Alliance carried out a survey of volunteers and employees of sports clubs right across the country. The results indicate that:
- In 2011, 84% of sports clubs thought that the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games did not represent an opportunity for them (Sport and Recreation Alliance, 2011b).
- Following the Games, our poll has found that two thirds (66%) of clubs do not feel that they have benefited and that the majority of clubs (73%) do not believe the Government has done enough to help community sport create a legacy of participation.
- Lack of funding for sports clubs is preventing 3 in 5 clubs (59%) from growing their membership whilst increased running costs are holding back the growth of almost the same amount again (54%). Similarly, half (51%) can’t grow their membership because of a lack of affordable venues/facilities.
- 2 in 5 clubs (42%) have seen an increase in the number of people joining their club since the Games this year but a quarter (26%) of these clubs are struggling to meet this demand.
- 9 in 10 (89%) clubs have reported no change in the number of disabled people joining their club.
- Three quarters of clubs (78%) have noticed no change in the number of people volunteering following the Games.
- Multi-dimensional framework as a new way to study the management of Olympic volunteering, Olesya Nedvetskaya, European Sport Management Quarterly, (24 February 2022). The London 2012 Olympic Games volunteer (Games Maker or GM) programme was the primary case for this research. Data was gathered before, during and 14 months after the Games in the UK via a mixed methods approach. Survey data from volunteers was complemented with semi-structured interviews with volunteers and managers, the author’s participant observations and documentary analysis. The proposed framework helped identify and evaluate the systems, mechanisms, and processes of developing and managing the GM programme. It became evident that unless key event stakeholders acknowledge the complex nature of Olympic volunteering and put adequate structures, resources and practices in place, the volunteer programmes are ineffective in managing volunteers and attaining a sustainable volunteering legacy. This paper offers valuable insights into the organisation and management of Olympic volunteering to achieve various programme results. It answers a call for a holistic approach to the phenomenon under study and features new directions for continued academic research in this critical area.
- Can international sports mega events be considered physical activity interventions? A systematic review and quality assessment of large-scale population studies, Michael Annear, Shintaro Sato, Tetsuhiro Kidokoro, et al., Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.712-729, (2022). Amidst ongoing debate about the viability of physical activity (PA) legacies associated with hosting international sports mega events, this systematic review explores quantitative evidence from population studies that utilize repeated measures. This review is guided by the PRISMA protocol and includes article quality evaluation techniques from health intervention research. Structured Boolean searches were conducted across six databases and grey literature sources. In total, 12 studies were identified from the last two decades across four event typologies. Among these studies, 9 were evaluated as being of higher quality, but only 4 employed standard definitions or measures of PA. Among the higher quality studies, two-thirds found no evidence for statistically significantly PA legacies, although gaps and limitations precluded definitive assessment. Common concerns include limited evaluation of covariates, sweeping conclusions based on insufficient evidence, arbitrary conceptualization and operalization of PA, and lack of triangulation. Research recommendations for resolving the impasse are proposed.
- Sport legacy impact on ethnic minority groups: the case of London 2012, Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Sport in Society, Volume 25(4), pp.730-747, (2022). The sport legacy among ethnic minorities has been neglected despite the positive outcomes of active lifestyle and social inclusion. The current research, applying time series analysis, evaluates evidence of sport legacy among four English ethnic minorities regarding the hosting of Olympic Games (London 2012). A short-term association was found between hosting the Games and sport participation rates among ethnic groups, leading more to increasing frequency of engagement for existing participants than to attracting new participants. The results indicate differences among the ethnic groups and gender, showing that females from Asian ethnicities having the highest engagement. Practical implications for the governance of events in the future relate to improving the festival effect of the Games, to encourage social inclusion for ethnic minorities. Our results might encourage policy makers to maintain a sustained effort in the post-event period to capitalise on sport legacy.
- An evidence-based assessment of the impact of the Olympic Games on population levels of physical activity, Adrian Bauman, Masamitsu Kamada, Rodrigo Reis, et al., The Lancet, Volume 398(10298), pp.456-464, (July-August 2021). Pre-Olympic Games predictions commonly include an increase in population-based physical activity in the host city, as often stated in the bid, but the post-Olympic Games effects on physical activity have not been summarised. In this Series paper, we aim to do the following: examine mentions of a physical activity legacy in pre-Olympic bid documentation; analyse existing physical activity surveillance data collected before, during, and after the Olympic Games in hosting areas around the world; and evaluate Google Trends data surrounding the London 2012 Olympic Games as a case study of community interest in the topic of exercise during the time of the Olympic Games. Before 2007, little mention of physical activity was made in pre-Olympic Games documentation, but, after that, most documents had targets for population physical activity or sports participation. The synthesis of available surveillance data indicates that there was no change in the prevalence of physical activity or sports participation, except for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano; although, the increase in participation in Nagano might not be attributable to the Olympic Games since there was no change in participation in winter sports. The Google Trends data showed an acute spike in searches with the term “Olympic” immediately associated with the London Olympic Games period and showed a sustained peri-Olympic increase in searches with the term “exercise”. By themselves, the Olympic Games have not improved population-wide physical activity but might be an important missed public health opportunity. Such a legacy will require strategic planning and partnerships across the International Olympic Committee and the Olympic, sport, and public health agencies and a thorough evaluation framework implemented throughout the pre-Olympic Games and post-Olympic Games period in the host country.
- Reconceptualizing a model of demonstration effects: integrating rational, affective, and behavioral constructs, Jordan T. Bakhsh, Luke Potwarka, Michael Naraine, et al., European Sport Management Quarterly, (19 May 2021). The purpose of this study was to examine how rational and affective motivational mechanisms influence youths’ intention and participatory behavior after watching an elite sport event. Data were collected from 318 youth post-spectating an elite track cycling event. Post-event questionnaires measured rational and affective motivational antecedents of intention, while the behavior was measured through sport program participation within one year following the event. Structural equation modeling revealed that rational (i.e. attitude toward the behavior, perceived behavioral control, descriptive norm) and affective (i.e. inspiration) motivational mechanisms significantly predicted intention, and intention, was a small but statistically significant predictor of participation. Scholars should consider the integration of both rational (e.g. participation constraints) and affective-based (e.g. inspiration) motivational mechanisms when modeling sport participation behaviors. Practitioners should consider designing event leveraging strategies that expand youth’s social networks (e.g. youth activities during event intermissions) and create experiential conditions which induce a state of inspiration (e.g. having athletes speak to youth after the event).
- Sport Events for Sport Participation: A Scoping Review, Georgia Teare and Marijke Tak, Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, (19 May 2021). Research on sport participation impacts from sport events has been sporadic. This scoping review assesses the current state of literature that addresses impacts, legacies, and leveraging of sport events for sport participation outcomes and the gaps in terms of study context and research designs. Two systematic approaches of article identification were performed: a traditional database search and a systematic manual search. Studies on sport participation outcomes from events mainly focused on mega sport events and adult populations, with the majority employing cross-sectional data and quantitative methods. The use theoretical of frameworks is limited and inconsistent. There is a need for longitudinal investigations, as well as more focus on youth populations, participant events, and smaller-sized events to advance the research agenda for sport participation outcomes from sport events.
- Leveraging sporting events to create sport participation: a case study of the 2016 Youth Olympic Games, Svein Erik Nordhagen, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 13(3), pp.409-424, (March 2021). The leverage perspective takes a prospective approach to legacy and focuses on how different organisations use an event as a catalyst to implement their own organisational goals. This paper examines how the second winter Youth Olympic Games (YOG) in Lillehammer in 2016 were leveraged to increase participation in organised and non-organised sport among regional youth. The analytical framework is based on available sport participation leverage literature. This is a case study using interviews with representatives from involved organisations, archival materials and observations as its main sources. The findings show that event organisations, sport organisations and non-sport organisations formed alliances to leverage the 2016 YOG for sport participation with intervention programmes and new infrastructure as the two main strategies. The sport participation legacy outcomes of the 2016 YOG were constrained by a lack of long-term strategies and limited resources made available after the Games. To maximise the sport participation goals, strong alliances and long-term commitments need to be formed among local and regional organisations.
- Membership of English sport clubs: A dynamic panel data analysis of the trickle-down effect, Pablo Castellanos-García, Themis Kokolakakis, Simon Shibli, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 13(1), pp.105-122, (2021). Investments in elite sport and major sporting events are often justified in sport policy by various rationales, one of which is a ‘trickle-down’ effect whereby successful athletes have a positive impact on general sport participation rates. This effect is likely to be greater when hosting events, as home advantage can contribute to sporting success. The purpose of this research is to explore the possibility of a trickle-down effect on sports club membership in the United Kingdom in the context of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Secondary data were collected on sports club membership levels in 33 sports, over a ten-year period, from 2007–2016 (n = 330). Sporting success was measured by the number of gold medals won in international competitions, the number of major sport events hosted in the UK, and the results of the BBC’s Sports Personality of the Year award (SPOTY). The outcomes of a dynamic panel regression analysis show a causal relationship between the trickle-down effect and sports club membership over a four-year period.
- Hosting elite sport events to target recreational sport participation: an interrupted time series analysis, Famke J.M. Mölenberg, Frouwkje de Waart, Alex Burdorf, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 12(4), pp.531-543, (November 2020). This study evaluated the effect of hosting elite sport events on sport participation against the background of a shift in focus towards targeting recreational sport participation. We included 10 international elite sport events organised between 2000 and 2017 in the city of Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Sport-specific participation in the past year was obtained from a biannual cross-sectional survey. Three events concerning cycling, table tennis and gymnastics were followed by an increase in sport-specific participation 1-year after the event was organised, whereas the korfball event was followed by a decrease. The pooled effect of the 10 events did not show any change in sport-specific participation. Significant group differences by period were found. More recent events targeting sport participation were followed by an increase in sport-specific participation, but not for other events. No group differences were found for the number of visitors and location. Hosting elite sport events that explicitly target sport participation may increase sport participation among citizens. Longitudinal data following individuals over time are needed to support this finding.
- Sport Promotion through Sport Mega-Events. An Analysis for Types of Olympic Sports in London 2012, Themistocles Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-Lopez, International Journal of Environmental Researcn ahd Public Health, Volume 17(17), 6193, (August 2020). The authors analyse the evolution of 43 different Olympic/Paralympic sport modalities in the two-year period after the London 2012 Olympics. By using data from the Active People Survey with a sample of 165,000 people annually, and considering some demographic variables and the effect of the economic environment, the paper aims to test the existence of a sport legacy. We have applied time series analysis and ARIMA models for controlling for economic influence and seasonal adjustment and for making comparisons among participation rates. The results show, for the total of the sports analysed, that there were 336,000 individuals who increased their frequency of participation, while there was no significant increase in the number of new participants in these sports. When we develop the analysis for types of sports, London 2012 is positively associated not only with the frequency of participation in some types of sport but also with an increase in the number of new sport participants. Gender and age differences are also detected. The results show the differences of sport legacy by type of sports. Moreover, this research has elucidated an important unrecognised aspect of the effect of the Olympic Games and perhaps major events: that they can become a major policy tool for reversing sporting inequalities.
- The sport participation legacy of major events in the UK, Girish Ramchandani, Richard Coleman, Elizabeth Christy, Health Promotion International, Volume 34(1), pp. 82-94, (September 2019). This paper examines the extent to which attending major sporting events leads to subsequent changes in the sport participation behaviour of spectators. The research covered seven single-sport events of World or European level held in the UK in 2014 and was concerned with spectators (aged 16 and over) who attended one of these events. Baseline data was gathered from a sample of spectators at each event using a face-to-face survey. Follow-up data was captured using an online survey at least nine months post-event. Our analysis is based on 258 people for whom both baseline and follow-up data were available (matched pairs). Using the Transtheoretical Model (TTM), the evidence from this research points to a small (net) positive staged change in sport participation among the sample overall. Variations in the nature and scale of changes associated with events featuring different sports were observed. Progression between the TTM stages was evident for individuals who were previously in the pre-preparation, preparation and action stages. The likelihood of progression appears to be strongest where prior contemplation for behaviour change was prevalent. Event attendance emerged as an important contributor for moving individuals along the TTM continuum, alongside a range of other factors. The demonstration or trickle-down effect was the primary mechanism by which any sport participation legacy supported by these events occurred. The practical applications of the research and the wider health benefits of leveraging event-induced sport participation increases are discussed.
- Did London 2012 deliver a sports participation legacy? Themis Kokolakakis, Fernando Lera-López, Girish Ramchandani, Sport Management Review, Volume 22(2), pp.276-287, (2019). Despite the increasing academic interest in the analysis of the Olympic legacy, there is a relative knowledge gap as far as sports participation legacy is concerned. The authors bridge this gap by analysing the short-term sports participation legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games on the adult population in England. By using data from the Active People Survey and considering different sports participation variables and the effect of the economic climate, results demonstrate a positive association with participation from hosting the Games. Participation rates were adjusted to take into account seasonality and changes in the gross domestic product (GDP), accounting in this way for the effect of the recent economic recession. The biggest effect was observed in relation to frequent participation (at least three times per week for at least 30 minutes) in the year immediately after the Games. In 2014, the sports participation rates fell relative to 2013 but remained higher than pre-Olympic levels. The sport participation legacy of the Olympic Games appeared to have significant differences between socio-demographic groups.
- “The Legacy Element . . . It Just Felt More Woolly”: Exploring the Reasons for the Decline in People With Disabilities’ Sport Participation in England 5 Years After the London 2012 Paralympic Games, Christopher Brown, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 42(5), pp.343-368, (October 2018). This article explores why sports participation of people with disabilities in England has declined since the London 2012 Paralympic Games (LPG). Thirty semistructured interviews were conducted with staff employed in a variety of sports and disability-specific organizations. Our preliminary findings suggest that the decline is a result of a complex interplay between multiple factors. A competency gap and a lack of relevance between Paralympians and the rest of the community of people with disabilities might have limited the impact of the legacy. In addition, an absence of coordinated leveraging of the LPG, and a decline in the media coverage of disability sport in the aftermath of the LPG, might also have dulled the legacy. Finally, our data show that austerity and negative media coverage of people with disabilities deterred some people from participating in sport.
- Sport participation from sport events: why it doesn’t happen? Marijke Taks, B. Chris Green, Laura Misener, et al., Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Volume 36(2), pp.185-198, (2018). The purpose of this paper is to present and use an event leveraging framework (ELF) to examine processes and challenges when seeking to leverage a sport event to build sport participation. The study used an action research approach for which the researchers served as consultants and facilitators for local sports in the context of the International Children’s Games. Initially three sports were selected, and two sports were guided through the full leveraging process. Prior to the event, actions were planned and refined, while researchers kept field notes. Challenges and barriers to implementation were examined through observation immediately prior to and during the event, and through a workshop with stakeholders six weeks after the event, and interviews a year later. With the exception of a flyer posted on a few cars during the track and field competition, none of the planned action steps was implemented. Barriers included competition and distrust among local sport clubs, exigencies associated with organizing event competitions, the event organizers’ focus on promoting the city rather than its sports, and each club’s insufficient human and physical resources for the task. These barriers were not addressed by local clubs because they expected the event to inspire participation despite their lack of marketing leverage. The lack of action resulted in no discernible impact of the event on sport participation. Results demonstrate that there are multiple barriers to undertaking the necessary steps to capitalize on an event to build sport participation, even when a well-developed framework is used. Specific steps to overcome the barriers need to be implemented, particularly through partnerships and building capacity for leverage among local sport organizations.
- Leveraging medium-sized sport events to attract club participants, Katharine Hoskyn, Geoff Dickson, Popi Sotiriadou, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Volume 36(2), pp.199-212, (2018). The purpose of this paper is to investigate how sport clubs can leverage participation from local, medium-sized, elite sport events. Key recommendations for clubs to leverage participation from a medium-sized event include: a leveraging plan should consider the resources and capacity of local community sport clubs; clubs should act collectively and collaboratively; and clubs should have a strong physical presence at the event(s).
- Long-term impact of the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games on sport participation: A cohort analysis, Kurumi Aizawa, Ji Wu, Yuhei Inoue, Mikihiro Sato, Sport Management Review, Volume 21(1), pp.86-97, (February 2018). This study investigated whether the cohort effect generated by the shared experience of hosting the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games during their youth can explain the increased sport participation of elderly Japanese. Data from the Japanese National Sport-Life Survey over 20 years were analysed through regression analysis. The results show that, after controlling for demographics and other determinants of sport participation, individuals who experienced the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games participated in sport more frequently than other generations. [this report generally seems to be an outlier to the normal narrative of no significant change].
- Survey report on awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics, Kotomi Shiota, Journal of Physical Therapy Science, Volume 30(1), pp.5-10, (January 2018). This study analyzes awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics. The results of this survey indicate that there was little or no intended or actual behaviour change within the population surveyed towards watching, participating, or volunteering in disabled sports. The author suggests that in order to change behaviour more needs to be done to promote and deepen understanding of, and participation in, disabled sport.
- The fiddle of using the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for expanding [dis]ability sport participation, P. David Howe, Carla Filomena Silva, Sport in Society, Volume 21(1), pp.125-136, (2018). This paper highlights the need to explore the significance given to the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for the encouragement of participation of people with a disability within sport. The media spectacle around the games that the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has developed has become, for policy-makers and the public alike, a sufficient outlet for disability sport provision. The honourable goals of the IPC articulated through the ethos of Paralympism have been assumed to be valid for all people with a disability, yet in terms of widening participation, their utility is limited. This paper first illuminates the relationship between the International Olympic Committee and the IPC before we turn our attention to the ethos of Paralympism. Highlighting the necessity for ‘sport for all’, we use a human rights lens, aided by a capabilities approach to facilitate better ways to educate the public about the need for equality of access to sporting participation opportunities.
- Sport participation behaviours of spectators attending major sports events and event induced attitudinal changes towards sport, Girish Ramchandani, Richard J. Coleman, Jerry Bingham, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 8(2), pp.121-135, (June 2017). Evidence of the link between major sports events and increased participation at grassroots level is somewhat mixed. This paper examines attitudinal changes to sport participation among spectators associated with seven sports events held in Great Britain in 2014. Primary data was gathered from 4,590 spectators aged 16 and over who attended one of the events. Both positive (inspiration) effects and negative (discouragement) effects were considered through the lens of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM).The evidence from this research indicates that event audiences belong primarily to the latter (more active) stages of the TTM. It was also found that attending sports events can further fuel the existing desire of contemplators to increase participation, whereas the catalytic effect among pre-contemplators is arguably less potent. Virtually no discouragement effects were observed across the different TTM stages. The research stops short of measuring actual changes in sport participation post-event of individuals in the different TTM stages and any attribution of such behaviour changes to events. This is both a limitation of the current research and a natural direction for future research. Practical implications: The main implications for promoting sport participation through the medium of sports events include attracting more people in the early stages of the TTM, greater collaboration between different event stakeholders and the building of sport participation strategies into the event planning phase. Originality: Models of behaviour change such as the TTM have seldom been applied to document the current and/or planned sport participation behaviour of individuals in a sport event context or to examine attitudinal changes towards sport as a result of attending an event. An adapted version of the TTM has been proposed to overcome the limitations of the traditional model.
- Facilitating sport participation legacies from Olympic and Paralympic Games: the case of Whistler Adaptive Sports and Vancouver 2010, Dickson, T., Darcy, S., NASSM Conference Abstract, (2017). Using a case study approach, this study explored the planning for and delivery of a sport participation legacy through the Whistler Adaptive Sports Program in the lead up to and following the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. It demonstrates that it is possible to achieve a a sport participation legacy from the Olympic and Paralympic Games, but it requires vision, planning and action.
- Creating sport participation from sport events: making it happen, Laurence Chalip, B. Christine Green, Marijke Taks, et al., International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.257-276, (2017). 12 expert panellists were invited to consider the challenges, opportunities, and prospects of leveraging sport events to enhance sport participation at local levels. It is concluded that sport events can be leveraged to enhance sport participation if the necessary alliances among sport organisations, event organisers and non-sport stakeholders are forged to integrate each event into the marketing mix of sport organisations. It is also noted that potential barriers to enhanced participation need to be addressed, particularly lack of available capacity to absorb new participants, crowding out of local participation by the event, and the disincentives resulting from elite performances that seem outside the reach of aspiring participants.
- Delivering Sports Participation Legacies at the Grassroots Level: The Voluntary Sports Clubs of Glasgow 2014, Macrae E, Journal of Sport Management, Volume 31(1), pp.15-26, (2017). This study investigated the experiences of volunteer sport clubs (VSCs) in Glasgow, before, during, and after key mega-events, with a focus on the impact of both the 2012 London Olympics and, in particular, the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games. Following Glasgow 2014, Sport Scotland released figures showing that between 2011 and 2015 there was an 11% increase in overall memberships (junior and senior) in the 17 Commonwealth Games sports, with some sports experiencing significant membership increases. Club membership is used to justify the legacy of major sporting events. This research identified key areas where focus should be placed when planning for any form of sports participation legacy from future mega-events: (1) ensuring VSC capacity; (2) providing tools for VSCs to retain new members; and (3) visibility of VSCs during and after the mega events. This study found that 64% of the clubs surveyed said they would not have the capacity to sustain a significant increase in members; given limitations in facilities, coaching, volunteers, safety considerations, etc. There appears to be few contingency plans in place to ensure that potential members have an alternative pathway to follow, and do not simply fall away from the sport. Although clubs could offer information and guidance, they were generally unable to offer full membership to every newcomer. The initial enthusiasm sparked by the Games could be lost, thus perpetuating the participation ‘spike phenomenon’ experienced during mega events. It remains to be seen if participation numbers among VSCs in Scotland can be sustained. Policy makers continue to champion the idea that the trickle-down effect of hosting a mega event will encourage a rise in post-event sport participation, but the evidence suggests that there is a greater need for localised strategies and initiatives to be set in place to encourage any sustained positive impact on participation.
- Leveraging the sport participation legacy of the London 2012 Olympics: senior managers’ perceptions, Emily Jane Hayday, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous and Niki Koutrou, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 9(2), pp.349-369, (2017). The purpose of this study was to understand how a sports mega event (SME) was leveraged to try and increase participation, through the investigation of national governing bodies (NGBs) opinions and attitudes. This research offers insights to enhance the policy implementation process within the sports development sector. The importance of communication, competitive nature of sports system, media, club engagement, organisational capacity and monitoring and evaluation were highlighted, which provided useful insights into the multidimensional constructs that can aid future leveraging strategies prior to hosting SMEs.
- Sport participation legacies of mega sporting events, Mike Weed, Chapter 5 in Legacies and Mega Events , Routledge, (2017). Evidence to support or refute the possibility that mega sport events such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games can lead to increases in sport participation in host communities is mixed. Supporting evidence suggests, properly leveraged, events can get those already participating to participate more, get those that have participated in the past to participate again, and reduce drop-out be re-invigorating participation. Refuting evidence shows events do not have an inherent effect, and cannot increase participation among those that do not participate in sport and never have done. However, because recent event hosts have not systematically implemented evidence informed policies to increase sport participation, the conclusion of this chapter is that sport participation legacies from mega sport events can be considered neither fact nor fairy tale.
- Volunteering legacy of the London 2012 Olympics, Olesya Nedvetskaya, Vassil Girginov, Chapter 4 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). London 2012 Volunteering Strategy was premised on the commitment to use the Games as a way of inspiring a new generation of volunteers and contributing to a lasting volunteering legacy for the UK. Using a critical realist evaluation approach, this chapter examines the processes through which the volunteering legacy can be achieved, for whom, under what circumstances, and over which duration. It concludes that the momentum to build on the enthusiasm of 70,000 volunteers was lost, and the volunteering legacy became declared rather than delivered. This inevitably poses questions about the effectiveness of legacy planning and delivery. The chapter extends the body of knowledge about social legacies of mega sport events and their governance and can be highly beneficial for future bids and host cities.
- The legacy of the London 2012 Olympic Games: A case study of grass-roots sport clubs and the sport participation legacy, Guy Thomas, Ian Brittain, Andrew Jones, Chapter 13 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). A key potential benefit of hosting mega-events such as the Olympic Games that has increasingly attracted nations and cities to bid to host them is the potential to inspire and engage people, particularly young people, in sport and physical activity. Reasons for this range from tackling obesity and other health issues, thus reducing the cost of health service delivery, and to encouraging social cohesion. This research is based upon PhD data collected by the first author that aimed to determine what factors impact on the creation of a sustainable London 2012 Olympic Games grassroots sport participation legacy from the perspective of voluntary sport clubs.
- “Lead Up and Legacy” A case study of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, Gareth Jones, Mike Edwards, Nick Passenger, Chapter 12 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). The quadrennial Rugby World Cup (RWC) is an integral part of increasing rugby participation worldwide. In order to leverage the RWC to create a desired participation legacy, strategies must be strategically integrated into the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of the event. From this perspective, The Lead Up and Legacy Strategy of the 2015 RWC provides one of the most well-developed leveraging plans to date. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the plan, which focused on two primary areas: (1) building capacity and (2) increasing participation. The legacy impact within these two areas is briefly reviewed, and the discussion integrates these results within the broader literature on leveraging and legacy.
- Olympic sport and physical activity promotion: the rise and fall of the London 2012 pre-event mass participation ‘legacy’. Bretherton, Paul; Piggin, Joe; Bodet, Guillaume, International Journal of Sport Policy, Volume 8(4), pp.609-624, (November 2016). The legacies of Sport Mega Events (SMEs) such as the Olympic Games are increasingly regarded as significant opportunities to increase sport and physical activity (PA) participation. This article examines the pre-event sport/PA policy target of the London 2012 Olympic Games: the aim of increasing overall participation by two million between June 2008 and the Games in 2012 (a target that was abandoned in 2011). Three specific themes are discussed: the inconsistency between how sport/PA participation was constructed in terms of both ‘risk’ and ‘reward’ by different organisations; the reliance upon intangible concepts such as ‘inspiration’ and the status of the Olympic Games to increase participation; and the rationales given for the subsequent abandonment of the pre-event PA participation targets in 2011. The abandonment of the pre-Games participation targets holds two overarching policy implications for future SME host governments and organisers. First, host governments cannot rely on the unique status or ‘inspiration’ of the Games alone to increase participation and must pursue this more proactively. Second, the ultimate failure of these policies should not be attributed exclusively to their intrinsic limitations, but also to a range of external environmental factors. Pre-event SME legacies must therefore be planned with sufficient awareness of the social and political contexts in which the event takes place.
- Paralympic Legacy: Exploring the Impact of the Games on the Perceptions of Young People With Disabilities. Janine Kim Coates and Philip Vickerman, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 33(4), pp. 338-357, (October 2016). The London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games aimed to deliver a legacy to citizens of the United Kingdom, which included inspiring a generation of young people to participate in sport. This study aimed to understand the legacy of the Paralympic Games for children with disabilities. Eight adolescents (11-16 yr) with physical disabilities were interviewed about their perceptions of the Paralympic Games. Thematic analysis found 3 key themes that further our understanding of the Paralympic legacy. These were Paralympians as role models, changing perceptions of disability, and the motivating nature of the Paralympics.
- Leveraging parasport events for sustainable community participation: The Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games, Laura Misener, David McGillivray, Gayle McPherson, et al., Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 18(4), pp.450-469, (September 2015). Drawing on a case study of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, this article examines the extent to which the hosting of an integrated parasport event where able-bodied athletes and athletes with a disability compete alongside one another is being leveraged to create opportunities for community participation, and influence community attitudes towards disability. The assumption about hosting parasport events is that the mere visibility of events will impact attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities in a positive manner; however, little evidence beyond anecdotes supports this assumption. Recent research on leveraging events also suggests the need to strategically utilize the opportunity of the event and related resources if seeking to attain sustainable positive impacts for the host community. The results suggest that whilst at the strategic level there was evidence of an integrated policy approach to leveraging the event for broader accessibility outcomes, this was not always accompanied by clear programmes or projects that are likely to lead to demonstrable impacts beyond the normal temporality of large-scale sporting events. We conclude by suggesting that the absence of clear, resourced and measurable aspirations for the parasport element of the Games may lead to unfulfilled leveraging possibilities as levels of interest and resources diminish.
- The Olympic Games and raising sport participation: a systematic review of evidence and an interrogation of policy for a demonstration effect. Weed, Mike; Coren, Esther; Fiore, Jo; et al., European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 15(2), pp.195-226, (April 2015). This article investigates the potential impact of the ‘demonstration effect’ on increasing sport participation and finds that although there is no evidence for an inherent demonstration effect, a potential demonstration effect, properly leveraged, may deliver increases in sport participation frequency and re-engage lapsed participants. It also suggests that the successive UK Governments failed to harness the potential influence of the 2012 London Olympic and Paralympic Games demonstration effect on demand and therefore failed to deliver increased participation.
- Did the 2000 Sydney Olympics increase physical activity among adult Australians? Bauman, Adrian; Bellew, Bill; Craig, Cora L., British Journal of Sports Medicine, Volume 49(4), pp.243-247, (2015), p.243. The Olympic Games' (OG) organisers typically hope that a diverse range of health legacies, including increases in physical activity and sport participation will result from their hosting of the OG. Despite these aspirations, the effects of the Olympics on physical activity levels remain to be demonstrated in large-scale population studies. This study examined the short-term impact of the Sydney 2000 OG, using serial cross-sectional population physical activity surveys of Australian adults in November 1999 and November 2000. Findings indicated that the intention to be active in the next month increased after the Games (adjusted OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.24), but was not associated with physical activity behaviour change. The legacy of the OG may be apparent through new infrastructure and other urban improvements, but evidence of their influence on physical activity levels remains elusive. Without multiyear integrated and well-funded programmes to promote physical activity, the Olympic legacy of a more active community may remain more rhetoric than reality.
- Limited or lasting legacy? The effect of non-mega sport event attendance on participation, Girish Ramchandani, Larissa Elaine Davies, Richard Coleman, et al., European Sport Management Quarterly, Volume 15(1), pp.93-110, (2015). It is often claimed by event promoters that hosting major sports events will inspire increased participation at grass-roots level. However, evidence of this linkage is scarce. This paper addresses the research gap by examining the legacy effect of ‘non-mega’ events on the sport participation levels of those who attend them. Data gathered using a combination of face-to-face and online surveys with spectators during and following their attendance at one of nine events, held in England between 2010 and 2012, yielded 434 matched responses. The analysis revealed different types of increases in post-event participation behaviour of both previously active and inactive respondents, including ‘initial’, ‘sustained’ and ‘lagged’ effects. However, attributing causality for these positive changes in activity behaviour to a single event is problematic due to the range of other factors that audiences may experience with the passage of time, including other events. The key implication of the research for management practice is that major sport events can have a positive market penetration effect but market development effects are as yet unproven.
- Factors influencing the inspirational effect of major sports events on audience sport participation behaviour, Girish Ramchandani, Themistocles Kokolakakis, Richard Coleman, World Leisure Journal, Volume 56(3), pp.220-235, (2014). The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the factors that determine the extent to which spectators attending one-off sports events feel inspired to increase their own participation in sport. The research considers both the socio-demographic and sport participation profile of the audience as well as the characteristics of an event as predictors of inspiration. The methodological approach involved secondary analysis of data collected from audiences across 10 events held in England since 2010. The findings are based on an aggregate sample of 7458 respondents. The statistical method used to analyse the data was multinomial logistic regression. The results show that the majority of respondents were inspired by the event that they attended, but the strength of the inspiration effect varied significantly according to their age; place of residence; ethnic origin; sport participation profile; and whether or not they had been exposed to information about opportunities to undertake sport. Moreover, events featuring team sports, non-age restricted events and elite events incorporating a mass participation component were also found to be positively related to inspiration. Several policy implications are identified for event organizers and public funders of both elite and community sport.
- Rio 2016 and the sport participation legacies. Reis, Arianne C.; de Sousa-Mast, Fabiana Rodrigues; et al., Leisure Studies, Volume 33(5), pp.437-453, (2014). The aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions held by physical education professionals of the sport participation legacy associated with the 2016 Olympic Games (Rio 2016). The perceptions of post-Games changes in sport participation, using the 2007 Rio de Janeiro Pan-American Games as a point of comparison, ranged from no impact to a short-term increase. The reason for this, according to participants, was the lack of long-term planning and policies to encourage and promote sport participation. In conclusion, in order for benefits of mega events to be leveraged, the different levels of government need to develop long-term actions and policies to encourage sports participation in conjunction with the employment of the infrastructural legacy towards this end.
- The inspirational effects of three major sport events, Ramchandani, G.M. and Coleman, R.J., International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Volume 3(3), pp.257-271, (2012). The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether attending one‐off sport events might inspire audiences to increase their participation in sport or recreational physical activity. Primary data collection was undertaken with spectators aged 16 and over at three major sport events held in the UK in 2010. The findings are based on an aggregate sample of 2,312 respondents. Around two‐thirds of respondents reported that their event experience had inspired them to increase their participation in sport or physical activity. The inspiration effect varied according to age and respondents’ predisposition to sport. The main factors that caused the inspiration were linked directly to the athletes and the competition. The provision of information about opportunities to undertake sport was found to be the most important lever to convert inspiration into participation. Evidence of the impact of major sport events on mass participation is relatively scarce and inconclusive. In order for any “trickle‐down” effect to occur, it would be reasonable to assume that audiences would first be inspired by their event experience. It is this basic sense of inspiration that the research aimed to measure.
- The sport participation legacy of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games and other international sporting events hosted in Australia, A. J. Veal, Kristine Toohey, Stephen Frawley, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, Volume 4, pp.155-184, (2012). The legacy of an Olympic Games in a host city or country can take a variety of forms, including non-sporting benefits, such as enhanced urban infrastructure and national and international tourism profile, and sporting benefits, such as improved sporting facilities, strengthened sports organisations and potential increases in grassroots sport participation. This paper concentrates on the last of these, particularly in regard to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. The paper examines claims by the Olympic movement concerning increased sports participation as a legacy and examines available evidence to consider whether the hosting of the Games boosted sports participation in Australia. While some estimates suggest that participation did increase following the hosting of the 2000 Olympics, the failure of relevant organisations to maintain an adequate and consistent data collection regime makes this conclusion extremely speculative. From 2001 onwards, with the existence of a more stable data collection system and increasing awareness of the idea of a sport participation legacy, it is possible to make more reliable estimates of the pattern of grassroots sports participation following the hosting of the 2003 Rugby World Cup and the 2006 Melbourne Commonwealth Games. However, even when reliable and consistent participation data are available, the question of causality in the context of the wider sport development and participation system remains to be addressed.
- Sustainable community development through sport and events: A conceptual framework for Sport-for-Development projects, Nico Schulenkorf, Sport Management Review, Volume 15(1), pp.1-12, (2012). Sport-for-Development projects have increasingly been staged to contribute to intergroup togetherness, social cohesion and community empowerment. While the analyses of individual sport and event initiatives highlights their capacity to impact positively on people and groups, they do not provide strategic guidelines, models or frameworks for community empowerment. However, such models are needed to foster practical research in the area of community development that can inform sport and event planning, management and leverage. In an attempt to fill this gap, this paper presents and discusses the Sport-for-Development (S4D) Framework, which can be used to guide the strategic investigation of sport and event projects and their contribution to understanding and measuring direct social impacts and sustainable social outcomes for (disparate) communities. The S4D Framework presents a holistic yet flexible management tool that can take account of cultural heterogeneity and program diversity, while shaping implementation, directing evaluation, and encouraging future planning of development initiatives
- The hidden benefits of non-elite mass participation sports events: An economic perspective, Coleman R, Ramchandani G, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, Volume 12(1), pp.24-36, (2010). This paper examines the hidden financial benefits that non-elite events are capable of delivering for host cities. The paper provides examples of how mass participation (and other non-elite) events can generate substantial economic impacts comparable to, and in some cases greater than, those associated with elite events. The cost-effectiveness of hosting mass participation events, relative to major elite sports events, is discussed.
- Building Legacy: Securing the Lasting Impact of Sporting Mega-Events, Qatar Economic Forum, Bloomberg Live, YouTube, (24 June 2021). Contemporary mega-events, like the World Cup and the Olympics, fundamentally change the face of their host cities. What lessons can be learned from modern sports events at the national and international levels?
- Building Capacity for Sport Participating Through Events, SIRCTalks/Exposés, YouTube, (23 June 2020). Research with small and medium sport event host communities has shown local sport organizations are interested in leveraging sport events to encourage new participation but often lack the capacity to do so. In this SIRCTalks episode, Marijke Taks, Professor of Sport Management at the University of Ottawa, discusses the role sport organizations have in stimulating new participation in sport.
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Paralympic Games
As one of the world's largest multi-sport events, investment in the Paralympic Games and Paralympic athletes can positively impact on society in many ways, including:
- social inclusion and diversity
- education
- employment
- health and wellbeing
- inspiration and role models
- international development (aid and trade)
- community development
- medical/equipment research and development.
In 2000, Sydney hosted the Summer Paralympic Games and this significantly raised the profile of the Paralympic movement in Australia and the world. It was the first Games with International TV coverage 50, and through a dedicated national education program, increased awareness of Paralympic sports and people with disability in schools, including over 340,000 school children attending the Games in person. 49
There are several legacy studies that attempt to document the outcomes of hosting the Paralympic Games directly for persons with disability as well as on the broader community, with some showing positive societal and participatory outcomes. 43, 47, 48
However, others question the continuing 'ableist' discourse and whether or not it actually leads to positive perceptions and participation outcomes for people with disability, especially if the underlying individual and societal barriers and challenges they face are not addressed through long term planning and investment outside of the event period. 22, 44, 45, 46,
Paralympic Games
Articles
- London 2012 Paralympics was not a gamechanger for disabled people’s sports participation – here’s why, Christopher Brown, University of Hertfordshire, The Conversation , (26 August 2022). This summer marks ten years since London hosted the 2012 Paralympics. It was hoped the Paralympics would have a lasting legacy on improving access to and participation in sports for disabled people. But the data shows the Games made no meaningful difference in this regard. The London 2012 Paralympics did help to raise the profile of parasport and disability in society to some extent. But any increases in sports participation that happened as a result were temporary. To truly improve participation in sport, the challenges and barriers that prevent disabled people from participating in both sport and society need to be addressed. We cannot simply rely on a two-week elite sporting event to do this.
- Beijing 2022 to bring greater accessibility for persons with disabilities, Beijing 2022/paralympic.org, (25 November 2021). With 100 days to go, the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Winter Games are already delivering tangible legacies for persons with disabilities by improving accessibility in Beijing and Zhangjiakou, two of the zones that will be hosting sport next March. The CPC Beijing Municipal Committee and the People's Government of Beijing Municipality have made thousands of practical and legal changes to improve long-term accessibility for persons with disabilities in urban Beijing.
- Why the 2000 Sydney Paralympics were such a success — and forever changed the games, Tony Naar, Murray Phillips, The Conversation, (19 October 2020). In sport, timing can be everything. The 2000 Sydney Paralympic Games...came at a time when the Paralympic movement was growing and becoming more visible. And the Sydney Games left a legacy that has forever changed the way the games are run and how Paralympic athletes train and prepare.
- The Paralympic Games and the Promotion of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Sir Philip Craven, UN Chronicle, Volume LIII, No. 2, (August 2016). Looks at the impact of hosting the Paralympic Games on the development of disability rights and recognition in China, England, Russia and Rio.
- IPC highlights from the first 25 years, International Paralympic Committee, (2014). A lot has happened since the International Paralympic Committee was formed on 22 September 1989. Check-out the timeline below to see some of the highlights of the last 25 memorable years.
- Paralympic X factor a win with consumers
, - Superhip to supercrip: the ‘trickle-down’ effect of the Paralympics, Gregor Wolbring, Brian Litke, The Conversation (August 2012). Author argues that despite the increasing success of the Paralympic Games there is no evidence of an automatic 'trickle-down' effect and that more has to be done to address the barriers to participation and ensure this popularity leads to real changes for the average person with a disability.
Paralympic Games
Audio
- The Paralympic Games: Legacies and Empowerment, Dr Chris Brown, Disability Sport Info, (9 December 2021). In this episode, I explore the potential impact the Paralympic Games may have on disabled people. The potential for sport participation legacies from the Paralympic Games is reviewed, followed by a critical appraisal of the empowerment/disempowerment potential of the Paralympic Games for disabled people.
Paralympic Games
Reports
- Paralympic data from the ONS Opinions and Lifestyle Survey. UK Department for Work and Pensions and Office for Disability Issues (July 2014). The data in this publication is taken from the ONS Opinions and Lifestyle Survey, which includes questions about attitudes towards disabled people before and after the 2012 Paralympics.
- Inspired by 2012: The legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, A joint UK Government and Mayor of London report, London, Cabinet Office (2013). Chapter Six of the report focuses on legacies from 2012 London Paralympics. These included: 81% of people surveyed thought that the Games had a positive effect on how disabled people are viewed by the British public, increase in disabled people’s participation in sport, and improved accessibility in transport. For instance, London's 22,000 black cabs can now accommodate wheelchairs and all 8,500 London buses are now wheelchair accessible and over 70% of bus stops are fully accessible.
- YouGov Nationwide Paralympic Legacy Survey, YouGov, (12 August 2013). YouGov poll surveyed 2,606 adults across the UK after the London Paralympics. It found that 67 per cent of people believed that the profile and awareness of disability has been raised generally and 64 per cent said that disabled people are better recognised as being able to lead normal lives and achieve at work.
- London 2012 : a legacy for disabled people - setting new standards, changing perceptions, UK Office for Disability Issues, (2010). The London Olympic and Paralympic Games plan to change three major areas: influence the attitudes and perceptions of people regarding disabled people, increase the participation of disabled people in sport and physical activity and promote and drive improvements in business, transport and employment opportunities for disabled people.
Paralympic Games
Research
- “The Legacy Element . . . It Just Felt More Woolly”: Exploring the Reasons for the Decline in People With Disabilities’ Sport Participation in England 5 Years After the London 2012 Paralympic Games, Christopher Brown, Athanasios (Sakis) Pappous, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 42(5), pp.343-368, (October 2018). This article explores why sports participation of people with disabilities in England has declined since the London 2012 Paralympic Games (LPG). Thirty semistructured interviews were conducted with staff employed in a variety of sports and disability-specific organizations. Our preliminary findings suggest that the decline is a result of a complex interplay between multiple factors. A competency gap and a lack of relevance between Paralympians and the rest of the community of people with disabilities might have limited the impact of the legacy. In addition, an absence of coordinated leveraging of the LPG, and a decline in the media coverage of disability sport in the aftermath of the LPG, might also have dulled the legacy. Finally, our data show that austerity and negative media coverage of people with disabilities deterred some people from participating in sport.
- Survey report on awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics, Kotomi Shiota, Journal of Physical Therapy Science, Volume 30(1), pp.5-10, (January 2018). This study analyzes awareness and participation behavior in disabled sports and disability understanding after Tokyo’s bid for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics. The results of this survey indicate that there was little or no intended or actual behaviour change within the population surveyed towards watching, participating, or volunteering in disabled sports. The author suggests that in order to change behaviour more needs to be done to promote and deepen understanding of, and participation in, disabled sport.
- The fiddle of using the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for expanding [dis]ability sport participation, P. David Howe, Carla Filomena Silva, Sport in Society, Volume 21(1), pp.125-136, (2018). This paper highlights the need to explore the significance given to the Paralympic Games as a vehicle for the encouragement of participation of people with a disability within sport. The media spectacle around the games that the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has developed has become, for policy-makers and the public alike, a sufficient outlet for disability sport provision. The honourable goals of the IPC articulated through the ethos of Paralympism have been assumed to be valid for all people with a disability, yet in terms of widening participation, their utility is limited. This paper first illuminates the relationship between the International Olympic Committee and the IPC before we turn our attention to the ethos of Paralympism. Highlighting the necessity for ‘sport for all’, we use a human rights lens, aided by a capabilities approach to facilitate better ways to educate the public about the need for equality of access to sporting participation opportunities.
- Facilitating sport participation legacies from Olympic and Paralympic Games: the case of Whistler Adaptive Sports and Vancouver 2010, Dickson, T., Darcy, S., NASSM Conference Abstract, (2017). Using a case study approach, this study explored the planning for and delivery of a sport participation legacy through the Whistler Adaptive Sports Program in the lead up to and following the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. It demonstrates that it is possible to achieve a a sport participation legacy from the Olympic and Paralympic Games, but it requires vision, planning and action.
- Legacy of sporting mega events for people with disabilities: The Paralympic Games, ByIan Brittain, Chapter 6 in Legacies and Mega Events, Routledge, (2017). There is very little published work that has investigated event legacies in terms of the Paralympic Games (Misener et al., 2013). This is despite the fact that, in many ways, the Paralympic Games, and their forerunners the Stoke Mandeville Games, were founded with the aim of providing a positive legacy for people with disabilities Through the lens of ableism this chapter highlights some of the legacy claims made for previous Paralympic Games before looking in more detail at the London 2012 and Rio 2016 summer Paralympic Games. Overall the chapter highlights that the Paralympic Games does have agency in the sense that it provides a platform from which to engage in debate about disability issues, but that political, economic, and cultural specificities within a host country can all work either for or against the legacy process in many complicated and often unexpected ways.
- Paralympic Legacy: Exploring the Impact of the Games on the Perceptions of Young People With Disabilities. Janine Kim Coates, Philip Vickerman, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 33(4), pp. 338-357, (October 2016). The London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games aimed to deliver a legacy to citizens of the United Kingdom, which included inspiring a generation of young people to participate in sport. This study aimed to understand the legacy of the Paralympic Games for children with disabilities. Eight adolescents (11-16 yr) with physical disabilities were interviewed about their perceptions of the Paralympic Games. Thematic analysis found 3 key themes that further our understanding of the Paralympic legacy. These were Paralympians as role models, changing perceptions of disability, and the motivating nature of the Paralympics.
- Leveraging the London 2012 Paralympic Games: What Legacy for Disabled People? Ian Brittain, Aaron Beacom, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Volume 40(6), pp.499-521, (2016). The International Paralympic Committee, U.K. Government, and the Organizing Committee for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games have all claimed partial success in delivery a positive legacy during the course of the 4-year period (Olympiad) separating the London and Rio Paralympic Games. However, this is at odds with the findings of Disabled People’s Organizations (DPOs) and the experiences of disabled individuals. This article considers the claims of both sides.
- Leveraging parasport events for sustainable community participation: The Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games, Laura Misener, David McGillivray, Gayle McPherson, et al., Annals of Leisure Research, Volume 18(4), pp.450-469, (September 2015). Drawing on a case study of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, this article examines the extent to which the hosting of an integrated parasport event where able-bodied athletes and athletes with a disability compete alongside one another is being leveraged to create opportunities for community participation, and influence community attitudes towards disability. The assumption about hosting parasport events is that the mere visibility of events will impact attitudes and perceptions towards persons with disabilities in a positive manner; however, little evidence beyond anecdotes supports this assumption. Recent research on leveraging events also suggests the need to strategically utilize the opportunity of the event and related resources if seeking to attain sustainable positive impacts for the host community. The results suggest that whilst at the strategic level there was evidence of an integrated policy approach to leveraging the event for broader accessibility outcomes, this was not always accompanied by clear programmes or projects that are likely to lead to demonstrable impacts beyond the normal temporality of large-scale sporting events. We conclude by suggesting that the absence of clear, resourced and measurable aspirations for the parasport element of the Games may lead to unfulfilled leveraging possibilities as levels of interest and resources diminish.
- Public Attitudes Toward People With Intellectual Disabilities After Viewing Olympic or Paralympic Performance. Ferrara, K; Burns, J; Mills, K, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, Volume 32(1), pp.19-33, (2015). A 2012 Paralympic Games goal was to influence the public’s attitudes toward people with disabilities. Study's findings provide evidence that both Paralympic (ID) and Olympic media coverage may have at least a short-term effect on attitudes toward people with disabilities, particularly people with an intellectual disability.
- 'A mockery of equality': An exploratory investigation into disabled activists' views of the Paralympic Games. Stuart Braye, Kevin Dixon, Tom Gibbons, Disability and Society, Volume 28(7), pp.984-996, (October 2013). This article offers an exploratory analysis of the opinions of disabled activists towards the Paralympic Games through the use of a qualitative online survey of disabled individuals (n = 32) who are not Paralympic athletes but are affiliated to the disability rights group, the United Kingdom Disabled People’s Council. The results illustrate a nuanced yet negative view of the Games to contrast with an existing, yet overly positive, academic narrative.
- The Paralympic Movement: using sports to promote health, disability rights, and social integration for athletes with disabilities. Blauwet C, Willick SE, PM and R: The Journal Of Injury, Function, And Rehabilitation, Volume 4(11), pp.851-856, (2012). Paralympic Games has greatly assisted in the promotion of health, disability rights, and social integration through sports. It has expanded opportunities available to athletes with disabilities.
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Last updated: 20 January 2023
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