Factors Influencing participation

Communication, whether good or bad, can have a significant impact on the quality of sport experiences for persons with disability, with poor communication often highlighted as a negative factor. ^{67, 69, 70}

This can include communication in person and through other channels, such as using or creating websites, advertising, newsletters, social media to communicate about an organisation, participation options, or programs. ^{30, 134}

In line with ‘Australia’s Disability Strategy 2021-2032’ and discussions with representatives of the disability sport sector, the Clearinghouse for Sport primarily uses person-first language (e.g. people with disability), but some resources or references, especially internationally, may use identity-first language (e.g. disabled people). ^{117, 118}

Both person-first and identify-first language are used in Australia, and usage will depend on individual and group preferences. Best-practice is to follow the language used by the person or group that you are working or communicating with, and if in doubt ask. ^{119, 134}

In Australia and internationally, the early years of sport for people with a disability were characterised by a medical-therapeutic approach. Criticism of the ‘medical’ model is that it made disability a ‘problem’ of the individual that needed to be fixed, and generally a tragedy. ^{120, 121, 122}

In more recent years, preferred terminology and models have shifted to human rights or social models. ^{117, 119, 120, 123}

‘Australia’s Disability Strategy 2021-2032’ states that the social model of disability recognises that ‘attitudes, practices and structures can be disabling and act as barriers preventing people from fulfilling their potential and exercising their rights as equal members of the community’. ¹¹⁷

Social model approaches to disability emphasise how society and organisations, through their structures, processes, and practices can address barriers and constraints encountered by people with disability. This can help to create environments, attitudes and practices that enable participation in all aspects of life, including sport. ^{20, 63, 123}

It is important to consider the specific audience/s that are being addressed, and what they may require. People with different disabilities (e.g. physical, sensory and speech, intellectual, or psychosocial) and other life factors (e.g. language and culture can be additional barriers to communication) may require different or additional techniques and approaches to provide the most appropriate and accessible communication. ^{70, 71, 134}

Some general suggestions for good communication practices include:

In person: ^{35, 72, 73, 74, 134}

• Focus on the person first and their ability.
• Speak directly to the person, if someone else is with them, don’t just talk to that person.
• Check for understanding by asking questions.
• Be patient, give the person time to communicate, and don’t rush instructions.
• Seek clarification from the participant of their needs.
• Consider different ways to convey instructions based on individual needs, e.g. visual, verbal, written, auditory, demonstrations, etc.

When communicating through other channels, e.g. websites, promotional material, social media, etc. ^{3, 31, 32, 69, 71, 134}

• Be clear, consistent, and concise (e.g. definitions, information on programs, staff, and facilities).
• Incorporate inclusive images and information.
• Be adaptable and flexible in your approach.
• Be detailed when describing the program/activity. E.g. describe the facilities, safety and accessibility features, available support or specialised equipment, use images and videos of your programs so participants (or parents/carers) can better understand the activities and determine if they are appropriate.

Australian and international research and surveys indicate that people with disability are generally more inactive than individuals without disability, but more likely to want to increase their physical activity and sport participation. ^{5, 45, 48, 49, 75}

One of the key barriers reported is financial cost. For participants with disability there are often additional costs on top of those that all participants might have (e.g. registration fees, uniforms, etc.). For example, transportation, specialised equipment, additional entrance fees if they need someone to provide assistance can all be additional costs that need to be covered by individuals, families, or organisations who want to encourage participation. ^{3, 16, 26, 35, 44, 45, 49, 50, 75}

A survey by the Activity Alliance in the United Kingdom in 2023 found that cost-of-living increases have a significant impact on how active people with disability are, and that this impact was higher for younger people with disability and those who reported more impairments. ⁴⁸

There is a role to be played by governments and organisations to help address the higher costs of sport and physical activity participation for people with disability, especially in having more consistent programs, funding, and accessible facilities available to encourage long-term participation. ^{48, 50, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79}

Enjoyment, having fun, and social engagement are all important motivators and facilitators of long-term engagement in sport and physical activity. ^{1, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 25, 45, 48, 133}

However, people with disability often report feeling less enjoyment of sport or physical activity than their peers without disability. ^{5, 45, 48, 52, 66, 133}

Reasons for not enjoying sport can include:

• Stigma or negative attitudes towards persons with disability participating. ^{3, 18, 33, 35, 53, 65, 66}
• Physical literacy (not being or feeling confident or competent, lower self-efficacy). ^{1, 3, 5, 16, 45, 52}
• Fear of failure or being judged, belief that sport is always competitive and/or not for ‘people like me’. ^{5, 45, 52, 54}

To increase long-term engagement in, and enjoyment of, sport, some ideas include: ^{9, 18, 20, 31, 35, 50, 61, 65}

• Focus on creating welcoming and inclusive organisations and programs.
• Include people with disability in planning and running events and competitions.
• Help participants to develop their skills and mastery in supportive and non-judgemental environments.

The in/accessibility of the environment, especially facilities and transport, can have a significant impact on individuals' ability to participate in sport or active recreation, whether that is as players, coaches, officials, volunteers, staff, spectators, fans. ^{2, 11, 15, 21, 31, 34, 44, 46, 65, 80, 81, 82, 134}

For people with disabilities the in/accessibility of transport to venues or events can be a significant challenge and a barrier to participation. ^{24, 34, 44, 45, 78}

• Data from a survey of Blind Sports Australia members in 2022 found that 94% of people who were vision impaired needed transportation to participate in a sport, with 59% requiring support from family, friends, or a support worker to get to activities. 52% of survey participants preferred to travel by private car, with public transport (41%) and taxi/ride sharing services (37%) the next most popular transport options. ²²
• A feasibility study of a frame running program published in 2022 found that several participants would not have been able to attend the program if transportation wasn’t provided. ⁴⁶
• A 2022 study in the UK highlighted that insufficient, or difficult to find, information on available facilities, equipment, and transport options was a barrier to using gyms, fitness, or leisure centres. ³²
• A 2015 report on inclusive and accessible stadia for the UK Government highlighted that the most frequently mentioned barrier when planning to attend an event was venues being difficult to access, with transport and parking problems regularly mentioned. The report concluded that providing information that focuses beyond just the stadium, including travel to and from the venue was needed. ⁸³

Governments and organisations at all levels can help sport be more accessible, for example, by: ^{3, 52, 56, 78, 83}

• Providing clear and comprehensive information on different ways to get to facilities, programs, or events.
• Providing transportation to programs or events.
• Improving the connection of transport to facilities and events.
• Reducing the cost of transport.

When considering the accessibility of facilities, the focus can often be on meeting legislated requirements or building standards (e.g. including lifts and ramps), but this often does not meet the needs of all users. A ‘universal design’ approach focusses on making the built environment usable for everyone, whatever their age, level of ability, cultural background, or other differentiating factors. ^{84, 85, 86, 134}

Several surveys and research reports have highlighted the ways in which even facilities with accessible features can be difficult for people with disability to access, navigate, and enjoy to their full extent.

• A 2019 study in South Australia investigating inclusion of people with disability in sporting clubs found that while most sporting clubs had a good level of facilities for those with physical disabilities, less than 30% of local clubs were involved with “inclusion” related activities (e.g. Come’N’Try events or teams for people with disability). ⁶¹
• A 2015 report for the UK Government found that when buying tickets, issues included limited numbers of wheelchair places, no seating choice, and difficulty purchasing online. Other issues included moving around the venue, accessing toilets, obtaining refreshments, and a lack of disability awareness from club staff and other spectators. ⁸³
• Research by VicHealth in 2010 highlighted that access to grounds, facilities, training, transport, and even areas where participants socialised created potential barriers for participants. ²

No one solution is suitable for everyone. Focusing on universal design can help facilities, organisations, governments, and others in the community to increase their awareness of factors that can impact equitable access. This can improve individuals’ ability from sign-up, to getting to and from the venue or event, and as they participate, to fully enjoy sport and active recreation. ^{2, 11, 18, 21, 31, 35, 47, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 134}

It is important for programs, resources and policies relating to participation by people with disability to ensure that they use the 'nothing about us without us' philosophy and work to ensure adequate, community-led initiatives and consultation. ^{20, 35, 45, 48, 61, 62, 65, 134}

A study in the United Kingdom in 2023 found that only 30% of respondents with disability believed that ‘sport is for someone like me’ compared to 65% of those without disability. The study also found: ⁴⁸

• 42% of people with disability said it wasn’t clear how they could provide feedback on activities they took part in.
• Only one in ten people with disability had had the chance to influence the types of physical activity they were involved in vs 14% of the broader population.
• A third of people with disability wanted more of a role in influencing the activities they take part in, including 48% of those who were involved in organised activities and 49% of young people.
• People with learning impairments or multiple impairments were more likely to want to be involved.

Surveys of clubs in Victoria and South Australia have found that many community sports organisations would like to offer more inclusive programs for people with disability, but often feel uncertain how to get started. ^{60, 61}

Some factors that have been highlighted in research as being more likely to lead to successful programs include:

• Use person-centred and led planning, have a range of options available that can be adapted to suit individual needs, goals, and capabilities, incorporating them into the community and the process. ^{2, 20, 26, 35, 37, 65, 87}
• Supporting autonomy, e.g. giving an athlete or volunteer, options to choose the skill or technique that they feel is most important to work on during practice or when learning a new role. ^{39, 65, 79}
• Make sure engagement is not just an afterthought or tick-box exercise. Include a range of people, not just established voices – proactively seek new people and different experiences. Show that you value and respect people’s skills, expertise, and contribution, including sharing their lived experience. ⁴⁸
• Use engagement and co-production activities to ensure resources are spent on initiatives that are accessible and meet a real need. ⁴⁸
• Focus on fun, enjoyment, and socialising, over competition, especially for new participants. ^{5, 41, 54, 56}
• Running multi-sport activities to allow participant to try and/or see what options are available. ^{3, 5}
• Having knowledgeable, empathetic, and skilled staff or volunteers. ^{5, 41, 88, 89}
  • A 2021 study found that children with cerebral palsy had 10 times greater odds of achieving and retaining bike riding skills when participating in a program led by physiotherapists versus a parent-led, home-based program. ^{29, 90}
• Considering the various identities and other factors (e.g. gender, sexuality, age, socio-economic or cultural factors, geographic location, etc.) that might also impact on participation. These intersectional factors or identities may mean that an individual or group has different needs, preferences, barriers, and motivators to be addressed to meet the desired outcome (e.g., increasing sport participation). ^{21, 24, 58, 71, 77, 91, 133}
• Consider integrated activities (e.g. wheelchair rugby league, walking versions of sports, Universal Sports programs, etc.) that allow individuals with different ability levels to participate together. This can help to expand the pool of available participants, increase participation opportunities, and may help reduce stigma, discrimination, and misconceptions about disability more broadly. ^{92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 115}

Policymakers, program designers and providers need to build relationships, autonomy, and to leverage the influence of people and environments to help engage individuals and communities in inclusive sport and physical activity programs. ^{20, 39, 48, 96}

A common phrase, used in many spheres, is 'if you can see it, you can be it'. ^{97, 98, 99}

Role models can encourage individuals to play sport and become more physically active. They provide evidence that success in an activity is attainable, help counteract negative stereotypes, and represent possible future states. ^{10, 31, 32, 97, 100, 101}

While Paralympic athletes are often highlighted as successful role models, other research emphasizes the importance of family members, friends, coaches, and the broader community to promote positive engagement in sport, education, and other healthy behaviours. ^{32, 41, 100, 102, 103, 104, 133}

A lack of visible role models, including limited numbers of players, coaches, and officials with disability, is often seen as a barrier to participation in sport. Seeing participants with disability at all levels can help to signal that a sport is welcoming and safe to join. ^{32, 48, 61, 133}

Research by the Activity Alliance in the UK found that people with disability were half as likely to ‘see people like me’ playing and working in sport and physical activity (22% compared to 44% of those without disability). ⁴⁸

Many researchers and commentators highlight the positive outcomes of using athlete role models to promote sport participation for people with disability. ¹⁰⁵

However, some advocates question the way in which Paralympic athletes are portrayed in the media, particularly the focus on what they have overcome (i.e. ‘disability’) rather than who they are or their accomplishments. ¹⁰⁶

Several terms have been coined to describe this phenomenon including ‘super-crip’ (i.e. the ‘super’ cripple) or 'inspiration porn'. These advocates argue that the media construction of a sporting ‘role model’ may be harmful to both the athletes and the broader disability community. ^{107, 108}

Technology is defined as the ‘branch of knowledge that deals with science and engineering, or its practice, as applied to industry’ (e.g. sport). It also describes tangible and intangible ‘equipment of a technologically sophisticated nature’ (e.g. computers, software, tools, machines, or other products both tangible and intangible) developed using scientific knowledge or processes. ^{124, 125}

Technology developed by and for people with disability can be a major enabler of participation as players, officials, coaches, administrators, fans, and more. ¹²⁶

This includes developing ways for people with different disabilities to engage with sport such as:

• Developing technology to allow people with low vision and blindness to play sports like table tennis using sound. ¹²⁷
• Using talk-to-text technology to enable non-verbal people to become exercise instructors. ¹²⁸
• Creating custom-built frames or equipment that allows users with different abilities to participate in sports and activities, such as skateboarding or power-wheelchair curling. ^{129, 130}
• Adapting three-wheeled mountain bikes for people with spinal cord injuries to ride. ¹³¹

Due to cost, and the fact that technologies often need to be personalised to individual needs—which requires time, skill, and resources—technology can also be a barrier and create inequalities between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’, especially in sport. ^{126, 130} For example, in para-athletics a small percentage of athletes are using wheelchairs valued over $50,000, but most competitors have ones that cost between $5000 and $15,000, sometimes second hand. ¹³²

It is likely that the speed and scale of technology development will continue to increase. It is important for sport as a sector, as well as organisations and individuals, to try to ensure that new tools, products, and technologies provide more equitable benefits and opportunities across the spectrum of abilities, support needs, and socio-economic levels. ^{126, 130}

Every person with disability is unique. People can experience similar impairments very differently, and will have individual backgrounds, life experiences, and perspectives, interacting with social and cultural interpretations of (dis)ability. ^{2, 7, 21, 63, 68}

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (SDAC) considers that a person has disability if they have at least limitation, restriction, or impairment that restricts everyday activities and has lasted, or is likely to last, for at least 6 months. Severity of disability is defined by whether a person needs help, has difficulty, or uses aids or equipment with self-care, mobility, and communication, and is grouped for mild, moderate, severe, and profound limitation. The groups identified in the SDAC are: ^{109, 110}

• sensory and speech (sight, hearing, speech)
• intellectual (difficulty learning or understanding)
• physical (includes breathing difficulties, blackouts, seizures or loss of consciousness; chronic or recurring pain or discomfort; incomplete use of arms or fingers; difficulty gripping or holding things; incomplete use of feet or legs; restriction in physical activities or work; and disfigurement or deformity)
• psychosocial (including nervous or emotional conditions, mental illness, memory problems, and social or behavioural difficulties)
• head injury, stroke or acquired brain injury
• other (restrictions in everyday activities due to other long-term conditions or ailments)

For 77% of people with disability, the main condition (i.e. causing the most problems) is physical. For the remaining 23%, the main condition is mental or behavioural, including: intellectual and developmental, such as intellectual disability and autism (6.5%); mood affective, such as depression (3.8%); dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (2.6%). ^{35, 109}

Disability type and the level of support required can explain some of the variation in participation seen across different populations and research projects. In a 2017 Australian study, the level of support needed by participants, was the most significant indicator of whether individuals were likely to participate, with those with higher support needs, less likely to participate. ⁶³

Limitations on data for persons with disability often include inconsistent data sources, small sample sizes, and mainstream data sources not including a disability ‘flag’. These limitations often lead to an inability to report on the experiences of people from different disability groups, as well as intersectional population groups (e.g. cultural or socio-economic status). ¹¹¹

From a sport perspective, this means it can be difficult to identify benefits, facilitators, barriers, good practice policies, and programs for people from different disability groups, or those with differing levels of limitation (e.g. research on people with intellectual disabilities, may focus on people with moderate impairment versus those with more severe impairments, or research on physical versus psychosocial disability groups). ^{7, 33, 63, 111, 112}

By increasing the availability of quality data and our understanding of different structural, social, and intersectional factors that may be impacting participants, the sports industry can help improve participation rates and experiences for all. ^{35, 63}

Welcoming and inclusive organisations with employees and volunteers who are knowledgeable about and empathetic towards people with disability, that feel safe, and are free of harassment or discrimination, are an important facilitator of sport participation. ^{5, 18, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 133}

Whereas when organisations, staff, coaches, or volunteers lack the motivation, confidence, skills and training (including how to engage and modify programs to suit specific needs) or have negative attitudes towards people with disabilities participating it is a significant barrier. ^{3, 9, 21, 31, 33, 35, 48, 50, 54, 60, 61, 62, 65, 83}

There is a clear need, and desire, for additional training for people who work in sport (both paid and volunteer) to help to better meet the needs of people with disability. ^{31, 60, 61, 83}

Australian surveys have indicated that many clubs would like to offer more inclusive programs and services, but are unsure of how to do so, and feel that additional training, especially for administrators and coaches, is needed to facilitate this. ^{60, 61}

A 2019 survey of South Australian sports clubs found that 60% of participants thought their club would have no idea where to start actively engaging people with disability into their teams and club roles. 88% wanted additional training for coaches and volunteers. And while three quarters of respondents supported the participation of people with disability in their competition, when asked if including a person with disability in a game would negatively affect the quality of a club game, 43% said that it would 'in some regard'. The authors of the study highlighted that this attitude suggests that, in principle, inclusion is highly regarded and communicated, but when ‘inclusion’ joins ‘your’ team it is seen differently. ⁶¹

Beyond the need to ensure that sport workforces are welcoming and well trained in including people with disability, it’s also important to increase the number and visibility of people with disability who are actively working in the sector (both paid and volunteer). ^{31, 35, 41, 61, 79, 116}

Data from the AusPlay survey shows that for Australians over 18 years with disability, between 2018 and 2022: ¹¹³

• Approximately 10% participated in a non-playing role, compared to 17% of the population without disability.
• Participation rates in non-playing roles were higher for males with disability (12%) than for females (8%).
• The most popular non-playing roles were coach, instructor, trainer or teacher (4%); official (3%), and administrator or committee member (2%).

A 2023 report by the Activity Alliance in the United Kingdom found that 12% of people with disability who were surveyed wanted the opportunity to become a coach or have a role in delivering physical activity. The desire was even higher for those currently taking part in organised activities (26%), and for young people (31%). ⁴⁸

To increase workforce engagement organisations need to collaborate with people with disability, and actively work to ensure open, two-way communication about what is needed and wanted, as well as ensuring that management practices and policies are inclusive and support individuals to start and remain engaged. ^{65, 79, 114, 116}